Advertisement
Research Article| Volume 12, ISSUE 2, P305-333, June 1992

Review of Testing for Human Immunodeficiency Virus

      This paper is only available as a PDF. To read, Please Download here.
      This article reviews the biochemistry and serology necessary to understand laboratory tests for the diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and provides a detailed discussion of currently available individual tests. These tests include the broad categories of antibody and direct viral detection assays. Clinical applications also are highlighted.
      To read this article in full you will need to make a payment

      Purchase one-time access:

      Academic & Personal: 24 hour online accessCorporate R&D Professionals: 24 hour online access
      One-time access price info
      • For academic or personal research use, select 'Academic and Personal'
      • For corporate R&D use, select 'Corporate R&D Professionals'

      Subscribers receive full online access to your subscription and archive of back issues up to and including 2002.

      Content published before 2002 is available via pay-per-view purchase only.

      Subscribe:

      Subscribe to Clinics in Laboratory Medicine
      Already a print subscriber? Claim online access
      Already an online subscriber? Sign in
      Institutional Access: Sign in to ScienceDirect

      References

        • AABB
        FDA licenses HIV-2 test, use not required in blood banks.
        Blood Bank Week. 1990; (April 27): 1
        • Allain J.P.
        • Laurian Y.
        • Paul D.A.
        • et al.
        Serological markers in early stages of human immunodeficiency virus infection in haemophiliacs.
        Lancet. 1986; 2: 1233
        • Allain J.P.
        • Laurian Y.
        • Paul D.A.
        • et al.
        Long-term evaluation of HIV antigen and antibodies to p24 and gp41 in patients with hemophilia.
        N Engl J Med. 1987; 317: 1114
        • Alter H.J.
        • Epstein J.S.
        • Swenson S.G.
        • et al.
        Prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 p24 antigen in U.S. blood donors—an assessment of the efficacy of testing in donor screening.
        N Engl J Med. 1990; 323: 1312
      1. Association of State and Territorial Public Health Laboratory Directors: Fifth Consensus Conference on Testing for Human Retroviruses, March 1990

        • Auger I.
        • Thomas P.
        • De Gruttola V.
        • et al.
        Incubation periods for paediatric AIDS patients.
        Nature. 1988; 336: 575
        • Ayanian J.Z.
        • Maguire J.H.
        • Marlink R.G.
        • et al.
        HIV-2 infection in the United States.
        N Engl J Med. 1989; 320: 1422
        • Bagasra O.
        • Fitzharris J.W.
        • Bajasea T.R.
        An early marker of development of pre-AIDS conditions in HIV-seropositive individuals.
        Clin Immunol News. 1988; 19: 197
        • Bahraoui E.
        • Benjouad A.
        • Sabatier J.M.
        • et al.
        Relevance of anti-nef antibody detection as an early serologic marker of human immunodeficiency virus infection.
        Blood. 1990; 76: 257
        • Baillou A.
        • Janvier B.
        • Leonard G.
        • et al.
        Fine serotyping of human immunodeficiency virus serotype 1 (HIV-1) and HIV-2 infections by using synthetic oligopeptides representing an immunodominant domain of HIV-1 and HIV-2/simian immunodeficiency virus.
        J Clin Microbiol. 1991; 29: 1387
        • Barin F.
        • McLane M.F.
        • Allan J.S.
        • et al.
        Virus envelope protein of HTLV-III represents major target antigen for antibodies in AIDS patients.
        Science. 1985; 228: 1094
        • Barnes D.M.
        New questions about AIDS test accuracy.
        Science. 1987; 238: 884
        • Barré-Sinoussi F.
        • Chermann J.C.
        • Rey F.
        • et al.
        Isolation of a T-lymphotrophic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS.
        Science. 1983; 220: 868
        • Barré-Sinoussi F.
        • Mathur-Wagh U.
        • Rey F.
        • et al.
        Isolation of lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV) and detection of LAV from US patients with AIDS.
        JAMA. 1985; 253: 1737
        • Barzilai A.
        • Sperling R.S.
        • Hyatt A.C.
        • et al.
        Mother to child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus I infection despite zidovudine therapy from 18 weeks of gestation.
        Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1990; 9: 931
        • Bedarida G.
        • Cambie G.
        • D’Agostino F.
        • et al.
        Anti-IgM screening for HIV.
        Lancet. 1986; 2: 1456
        • Benenson A.S.
        • Peddecord K.M.
        • Hofherr L.K.
        • et al.
        Reporting the results of human immunodeficiency virus testing.
        JAMA. 1990; 262: 3435
        • Bianco C.
        • Uehlinger J.
        • Kaplan H.S.
        Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in homosexual men who remain seronegative for prolonged periods.
        N Engl J Med. 1989; 321: 1678
        • Biberfeld G.
        • Bredberg-Raden U.
        • Böttiger B.
        • et al.
        Blood donor sera with false-positive Western blot reactions to human immunodeficiency virus.
        Transfusion. 1986; 27: 118
        • Blanche S.
        • Tardieu M.
        • Duliege A.M.
        • et al.
        Longitudinal study of 92 infants with perinatally acquired immunodeficiency virus infection.
        Am J Dis Child. 1990; 144: 1210
        • Blattner W.A.
        HIV epidemiology: Past, present, and future.
        FASEB J. 1991; 5: 2340
        • Borkowski W.
        • Krasinski K.
        • Paul D.
        • et al.
        Human-immunodeficiency-virus infections in infants negative for anti-HIV by enzyme-linked immunoassay.
        Lancet. 1987; 1: 1168
        • Bowen D.L.
        • Lane H.C.
        • Fauci A.S.
        Immunologic features of AIDS.
        in: DeVita Jr., A. Heilman S. Rosenberg S.A. AIDS: Etiology, Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention V. Lippincott, Philadelphia1985: 89
        • Brambati B.
        • Guercilena S.
        • Bonacchi I.
        • et al.
        Feto-matemal transfusion after chorionic villus sampling: Clinical implications.
        Hum Reprod. 1986; 1: 37
        • Bremard-Oury C.
        • Couroucé A.M.
        • Badillet M.
        • et al.
        Screening for antibodies to LAV/ HTLV-III in recipients of immunoglobulin preparations.
        Lancet. 1986; 1: 1090
        • Bulfamante G.
        • Muggiasca L.
        • Conti M.
        • et al.
        Placental morphologic findings in HIV positive pregnancies: Frequency and correlation to the clinical status of mothers and their babies [abstract WC3249]. Florence, Italy, 7th International Conference on AIDS1991
        • Burke D.S.
        Laboratory diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus infection.
        Clin Lab Med. Saunders, Philadelphia1989: 369
        • Burke D.S.
        • Brandt B.L.
        • Redfield R.R.
        • et al.
        Diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus infection by immunoassay using a molecularly cloned and expressed virus envelope polypeptide.
        Ann Intern Med. 1987; 106: 671
        • Burke D.S.
        • Brundage J.F.
        • Redfield R.R.
        • et al.
        Measurement of the false positive rate in a screening program for human immunodeficiency virus infections.
        N Engl J Med. 1988; 319: 961
        • Burke D.S.
        • Redfield R.R.
        False-positive Western blot tests for antibodies to HTLV-III.
        JAMA. 1986; 256: 347
        • Busch M.P.
        • Rajogopalan M.S.
        • Gants D.M.
        • et al.
        In situ hybridization and immunohisto-chemistry for improved assessment of human immunodeficiency virus cultures.
        Am J Clin Pathol. 1987; 88: 673
        • Busch M.P.
        • Taylor P.E.
        • Lenes B.A.
        • et al.
        Screening of selected male blood donors for p24 antigen of human immunodeficiency virus type 1.
        N Engl J Med. 1990; 323: 1308
        • CDC Update
        Serologic testing for antibody to human immunodeficiency virus.
        MMWR. 1988; 36: 833
        • CDC Update
        Public Health Service workshop on human T-lymphotropic virus type III antibody testing—United States.
        MMWR. 1985; 34: 477
        • CDC
        AIDS due to HIV-2 infection—New Jersey.
        MMWR. 1988; 37: 33
        • CDC
        Public Health Service guidelines for counseling and antibody testing to prevent HIV infection and AIDS.
        MMWR. 1987; 36: 509
        • Chang N.T.
        • Huant J.
        • Ghrayeb S.
        • et al.
        An HTLV-III peptide produced by recombinant DNA is immunoreactive with sera from patients with AIDS.
        Nature. 1985; 315: 151
        • Chiodi F.
        • Bredberg-Raden U.
        • Biberfeld G.
        • et al.
        Radioimmunoprecipitation and Western blotting with sera of human immunodeficiency virus infected patients: A comparative study.
        AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 1987; 3: 165
        • Chiu I.M.
        • Yaniv A.
        • Dahlbert J.E.
        • et al.
        Nucleotide sequence evidence for relationship of AIDS retrovirus to lentiviruses.
        Nature. 1985; 317: 366
        • Clark S.J.
        • Saag M.S.
        • Decker W.D.
        • et al.
        High titers of cytopathic virus in plasma of patients with symptomatic primary HIV-1 infection.
        N Engl J Med. 1991; 324: 954
        • Clavel F.
        • Guétard D.
        • Brun-Vézinet F.
        • et al.
        Isolation of a new human retrovirus from West African patients with AIDS.
        Science. 1986; 233: 343
        • Clavel F.
        • Mansinho K.
        • Chamaret S.
        • et al.
        Human immunodeficiency virus type 2 infection associated with AIDS in West Africa.
        N Engl J Med. 1987; 316: 1180
        • Coffin J.
        • Haase A.
        • Levy J.A.
        • et al.
        Human immunodeficiency viruses.
        Science. 1986; 232: 697
        • Connell J.A.
        • Parry J.V.
        • Mortimer P.P.
        • et al.
        Preliminary report: Accurate assays for anti-HIV in urine.
        Lancet. 1990; 335: 1366
        • Consortium for Retrovirus Serology Standardization
        Serological diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus infection by Western Blot testing.
        JAMA. 1988; 260: 674
        • Coombs R.W.
        • Collier A.C.
        • Allain J.-P.
        • et al.
        Plasma viremia in human immunodeficiency virus infection.
        N Engl J Med. 1989; 321: 1626
        • Cooper D.A.
        • Gold J.
        • MacLean P.
        • et al.
        Acute AIDS retrovirus infection.
        Lancet. 1985; 1: 537
        • Cooper D.A.
        • Imre A.A.
        • Penny R.
        Antibody response to human immunodeficiency virus after primary infection.
        J Infect Dis. 1987; 155: 1113
        • Cory J.M.
        • Ohlsson-Wilhelm B.M.
        • Brock E.J.
        • et al.
        Detection of human immunodeficiency virus infected lymphoid cells of low frequency by flow cytometry.
        J Immunol Methods. 1987; 105: 71
        • Couroucé A.M.
        • Müller J.Y.
        • Richard D.
        False positive Western blot reactions to human immunodeficiency virus in blood donors.
        Lancet. 1986; 2: 921
        • Cowan M.J.
        • Amman A.J.
        • Wara D.W.
        • et al.
        Pneumococcal polysaccharide immunization in infants and children.
        Pediatrics. 1978; 62: 721
        • Cumming P.D.
        • Wallace E.L.
        • Schorr J.B.
        • et al.
        Exposure of patients to human immunodeficiency virus through the transfusion of blood components that test antibody-negative.
        N Engl J Med. 1989; 321: 941
        • Curran J.W.
        • Jaffe H.W.
        • Hardy A.M.
        • et al.
        Epidemiology of HIV infection and AIDS in the United States.
        Science. 1988; 239: 610
        • Daar E.S.
        • Moudgil T.
        • Meyer R.D.
        • et al.
        Transient high levels of viremia in patients with primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection.
        N Engl J Med. 1991; 324: 961
        • Daijn P.
        • Quinn C.
        • Vline R.
        • et al.
        Diagnosis of perinatal HIV-infection by detection of viral-specific IgA antibodies in U.S. and Haitian pediatric populations.
        Program and Abstracts of the 7th International AIDS Meeting. Italy, Florence1991 (June)
        • D’Amato J.
        • Fipps D.R.
        • Redfield R.R.
        • et al.
        The Department of the Army quality assurance program for human immunodeficiency virus antibody testing.
        Laboratory Medicine. 1988; 19: 577
        • D’Arminio M.A.
        • Novati R.
        • Marchisio P.
        • et al.
        Early diagnosis of HIV infection in infants.
        AIDS. 1988; 3: 391
        • Daugharty H.
        • Long E.G.
        • Swisher B.L.
        • et al.
        Comparative study with in situ hybridization and immunocytochemistry in detection of HIV-1 in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded cell cultures.
        J Clin Lab Anal. 1990; 4: 283
        • DeCock K.M.
        • Maran M.
        • Kouadio J.C.
        • et al.
        Rapid test for distinguishing HIV-1 and HIV-2.
        Lancet. 1990; 336: 757
        • Deinhardt F.
        • Eberle J.
        • Gürtler L.
        Sensitivity and specificity of eight commercial and one recombinant anti-HIV ELISA tests.
        Lancet. 1987; 1: 40
        • Devash Y.
        • Calvelli T.A.
        • Wood D.G.
        • et al.
        Vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus is correlated with the absence of high-affinity/avidity maternal antibodies to the gpl20 principal neutralizing domain.
        Proc Natl Acad Sei USA. 1990; 87: 3445
        • DeWolf F.
        • Goudsmit J.
        • Paul D.A.
        • et al.
        Risk of AIDS related complex and AIDS in homosexual men with persistent HIV antigenaemia.
        Br Med J. 1987; 295: 569
        • Dodd R.Y.
        • Barker L.F.
        Early markers of HIV-1 infection in plasma donors.
        JAMA. 1989; 262: 92
        • Drotman D.P.
        • Valdiserri R.O.
        Are human immunodeficiency virus test reports clear to clinicians?.
        JAMA. 1989; 262: 3465
        • Edwards J.R.
        • Ulrich P.P.
        • Weintrub P.S.
        • et al.
        Polymerase chain reaction compared with concurrent viral cultures for rapid identification of human immunodeficiency virus infection among high-risk infants and children.
        J Pediatr. 1989; 115: 200
        • Escaich S.
        • Wallon M.
        • Baginski I.
        • et al.
        Comparison of HIV detection by virus isolation in lymphocyte cultures and molecular amplification of HIV DNA and RNA by PCR in offspring of seropositive mothers.
        Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. 1991; 4: 130
        • Essex M.
        • Allan J.
        • Kanki P.
        • et al.
        Antigens of human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy associated virus.
        Ann Intern Med. 1985; 103: 700
        • European Collaborative Study
        Mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection.
        Lancet. 1988; 2: 1039
        • Fauci A.S.
        The human immunodeficiency virus: Infectivity and mechanisms of pathogenesis.
        Science. 1988; 239: 617
        • Fleming D.W.
        • Cochi S.L.
        • Steece R.S.
        • et al.
        Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in lowincidence area.
        JAMA. 1987; 258: 785
        • Francis H.L.
        • Kabeya M.
        • Kafuama N.
        • et al.
        Comparison of sensitivities and specificities of latex agglutination and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of antibodies to the human immunodeficiency virus in African sera.
        J Clin Microbiol. 1988; 26: 246
        • Gaines H.
        • Sönnerborg A.
        • Czajkowski J.
        • et al.
        Antibody response in primary human immunodeficiency virus infection.
        Lancet. 1987; 1: 1249
        • Gallo R.C.
        • Salahuddin S.Z.
        • Popovic M.
        • et al.
        Frequent detection and isolation of cytopathic retroviruses (HTLV-III) from patients with AIDS and at risk for AIDS.
        Science. 1984; 224: 500
        • Gallo D.
        • Diggs J.L.
        • Shell G.R.
        • et al.
        Comparison of detection of antibody to the acquired immune deficiency syndrome virus by enzyme immunoassay, immunofluorescence, and Western blot methods.
        J Clin Microbiol. 1986; 23: 1049
        • Gauthier D.K.
        • Turner J.G.
        Anti-HIV antibody testing: Procedures and precautions.
        Am J Infect Control. 1989; 17: 213
        • Gnann Jr., J.W.
        • McCormick J.B.
        • Mitchell S.
        • et al.
        Synthetic peptide immunoassay distinguishes HIV type 1 and HIV type 2 infections.
        Science. 1987; 237: 1346
        • Gnann Jr., J.W.
        • Nelson J.A.
        • Oldstone M.B.A.
        Fine mapping of an immunodominant domain in the transmembrane glycoprotein of human immunodeficiency virus.
        J Virol. 1987; 61: 2639
        • Gnann Jr., J.W.
        • Schwimmbeck P.L.
        • Nelson J.A.
        • et al.
        Diagnosis of AIDS by using a 12-amino acid peptide representing an immunodominant epitope of the human immunodeficiency virus.
        J Infect Dis. 1987; 156: 261
        • Goedert J.J.
        Testing for human immunodeficiency virus.
        Ann Intern Med. 1986; 105: 609
        • Goedert J.J.
        • Mendez H.
        • Drummond J.E.
        • et al.
        Mother-to-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: Association with prematurity or low anti-gpl20.
        Lancet. 1989; 2: 1351
        • Gordon M.A.
        Caveat: False positive results of HIV testing.
        Am J Clin Pathol. 1987; 88: 542
        • Gottfried T.D.
        • Umovitz H.B.
        HIV-1 testing: Product development strategies.
        TIBTECH. 1990; 8: 35
        • Goudsmit J.
        • DeWolf F.
        • Paul D.A.
        Expression of human immunodeficiency virus antigen (HIV-Ag) in serum and cerebrospinal fluid during acute and chronic infection.
        Lancet. 1986; 2: 177
        • Goudsmit J.
        • Lange J.M.A.
        • Paul D.A.
        • et al.
        Antigenemia and antibody titers to core and envelope antigens in AIDS, AIDS-related complex, and subclinical human immunodeficiency virus infection.
        J Infect Dis. 1987; 155: 558
        • Groopman J.E.
        • Chen F.W.
        • Hope J.A.
        • et al.
        Serological characterization of HTLV-III infection in AIDS and related disorders.
        J Infect Dis. 1986; 153: 736
        • Grose C.
        • Itani O.
        • Weiner C.P.
        Prenatal diagnosis of fetal infection: Advances from amniocentesis to cordocentesis—congenital toxoplasmosis, rubella, cytomegalovirus, varicella virus, parvovirus and human immunodeficiency virus.
        Pediatr Infect Dis. 1989; 8: 4598
        • Harper M.E.
        • Marsaile L.M.
        • Gallo R.C.
        • et al.
        Detection of lymphocytes expressing human T-lymphotropic virus type III in lymph nodes and peripheral blood from infected individuals by in situ hybridization.
        Proc Natl Acad Sei USA. 1986; 88: 772
        • Harry D.J.
        • Jennings M.B.
        • Yee J.
        • et al.
        Antigen detection for human immunodeficiency virus.
        Clin Microbiol Rev. 1989; 2: 241
        • Haseltine W.A.
        Molecular biology of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1.
        FASEB J. 1991; 5: 2349
        • Haseltine W.A.
        Silent HIV infections.
        N Engl J Med. 1989; 320: 14878
        • Hersh E.M.
        • Reuben J.M.
        • Rios A.
        • et al.
        Elevated serum thymosin alpha 1 levels associated with evidence of immune dysregulation in male homosexuals with a history of infectious disease or Kaposi’s sarcoma.
        N Engl J Med. 1983; 308: 45
        • Heyward W.L.
        • Curran J.W.
        Rapid screening tests for HIV infection.
        JAMA. 1988; 260: 542
        • Ho D.D.
        • Moudgil T.
        • Alan M.
        Quantitation of human immunodeficiency virus type I in the blood of infected persons.
        N Engl J Med. 1989; 321: 1621
        • Horsburgh Jr, C.R.
        • Ou C.Y.
        • Jason J.
        • et al.
        Duration of human immunodeficiency virus infection before detection of antibody.
        Lancet. 1989; 2: 637
        • Houck J.A.
        • Sedmak D.D.
        • Grose M.P.
        • et al.
        Sensitivity and interobserver variability of the recombigen HIV-1 LA test.
        Am J Clin Pathol. 1990; 93: 538
        • Imagawa D.T.
        • Lee M.H.
        • Wolinsky S.M.
        • et al.
        Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in homosexual men who remain seronegative for prolonged periods.
        N Engl J Med. 1989; 320: 1458
        • Italian Multicentre Study
        Epidemiology, clinical features and prognostic factors of paediatric HIV infection.
        Lancet. 1988; 2: 1043
        • Jackson J.B.
        Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 antigen and culture assays.
        Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1990; 114: 249
        • Jackson J.B.
        • Balfour Jr., H.H.
        Practical diagnostic testing for human immunodeficiency virus.
        Clin Microbiol Rev. 1988; 1: 124
        • Jackson J.B.
        • Kwok S.Y.
        • Sninsky J.J.
        • et al.
        Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 detected in all seropositive symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals.
        J Clin Microbiol. 1990; 28: 16
        • Jackson J.B.
        • MacDonald K.L.
        • Cadwell J.
        • et al.
        Absence of HIV infection in blood donors with indeterminate Western blot tests for antibody to HIV-1.
        N Engl J Med. 1990; 322: 217
        • Jackson J.B.
        • Sannerud F.
        • Rhame R.
        • et al.
        Comparison of reverse transcriptase assay with the Retro-Tek viral capture assay for detection of human immunodeficiency virus.
        Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1987; 7: 185
        • Jenson H.B.
        Retrovirus infections and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.
        in: Arnoff S.C. Hughes W.T. Kohe S. Pediatric Infectious Diseases. MA, Year Book Medical Publishers, Littleton1990: 93
        • Jun Li J.
        • Friedman-Kien A.E.
        • Huang Y.Q.
        • et al.
        HIV-1 DNA pro viral sequences in fresh urine pellets from HIV-1 seropositive persons.
        Lancet. 1990; 2: 1590
        • Kamani N.
        • Krilov L.R.
        • Wittek A.E.
        • et al.
        Characterization of the serologic profile of children with human immunodeficiency virus infection: Correlation with clinical status.
        Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1989; 53: 233
        • Kanki P.J.
        • Barin F.
        • Souleyman M.B.
        • et al.
        New human T-lymphotropic retrovirus related to simian T-lymphotropic virus type III (STLV-IIIAGM.
        Science. 1986; 232: 238
        • Kannagi M.
        • Chalifoux L.
        • Lord C.I.
        • et al.
        Suppression of simian immunodeficiency virus replication in vivo by CD8 positive lymphocytes.
        J Immunol. 1988; 140: 2237
        • Katz J.D.
        • Mitsuyasu R.
        • Gottlieb M.S.
        • et al.
        Mechanism of defective NK cell activity in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and AIDS-related complex. II: Normal antibody-dependent cellular cytoxicity (ADCC) mediated by effector cells defective in natural killer (NK) cytotoxicity.
        J Immunol. 1987; 139: 55
        • Kleinman S.
        The significance of HIV-1-indeterminate Western Blot results in blood donor populations.
        Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1990; 114: 298
        • Krasinski K.
        • Borkowski W.
        Laboratory diagnosis of HIV infection.
        Pediatr Clin North Am. 1991; 38: 17
        • Krivine A.
        • Yakudima A.
        • LeMay M.
        • et al.
        A comparative study of virus isolation, polymerase chain reaction, and antigen detection in children of mothers infected with human immunodeficiency virus.
        J Pediatr. 1990; 116: 372
        • Kühnl P.
        • Seidl S.
        • Holzberger G.
        HLA DR4 antibodies cause positive HTLV-III antibody ELISA results.
        Lancet. 1985; 1: 1222
        • Kwok S.
        • Higuchi R.
        Avoiding false positives with PCR.
        Nature. 1989; 239: 237
        • Kwok S.
        • Mack D.H.
        • Mullis K.B.
        • et al.
        Identification of human immunodeficiency virus sequences by using in vitro enzymatic amplification and oligomer cleavage detection.
        J Virol. 1987; 61: 1690
        • Kwok S.
        • Mack D.H.
        • Sninsky J.J.
        • et al.
        Diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus in seropositive individuals: Enzymatic amplification of HIV viral sequences in peripheral blood mononuclear cells.
        in: Luciw P.A. Steimer K.S. HIV Detection by Genetic Engineering. 13. Marcel Dekker, New York1989: 243
        • Lai-Goldman M.
        • McBride J.H.
        • Howanitz P.J.
        • et al.
        Presence of HTLV-III antibodies in immune serum globulin preparations.
        Am J Clin Pathol. 1987; 87: 635
        • Landay A.
        • Ohlsson-Wilhelm B.
        • Giorgi J.V.
        Application of flow cytometry to the study of HIV infection.
        AIDS. 1990; 4: 479
        • Lane H.C.
        • Fauci A.S.
        Immunologic abnormalities in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.
        Annu Rev Immunol. 1985; 3: 477
        • Lange J.M.
        • Coutinho R.A.
        • Krone W.J.
        • et al.
        Distinct IgG recognition patterns during progression of subclinical and clinical infection with lymphadenopathy associated virus/human T-lymphotropic virus.
        Br Med J [Clin Res]. 1986; 292: 228
        • Lange J.M.
        • Paul D.A.
        • Huisman H.G.
        • et al.
        Persistent HIV antigenaemia and decline of HIV core antibodies associated with transition to AIDS.
        Br Med J [Clin Res]. 1986; 293: 1459
        • Lee F.K.
        • Nahmias A.J.
        • Lowery S.
        • et al.
        ELISPOT—A new approach to studying the dynamics of virus-immune system interaction for diagnosis and monitoring of HIV infection.
        AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 1989; 5: 517
        • Lefrere J.J.
        • Mariotti M.
        • Couroucé A.M.
        • et al.
        Polymerase chain reaction testing of HIV-1 seronegative at-risk individuals.
        Lancet. 1990; 2: 1400
        • Lelie P.N.
        • van der Poel C.L.
        • Reesink H.W.
        • et al.
        Efficacy of the latest generation of antibody assays for (early) detection of HIV 1 and HIV 2 infection.
        Vox Sang. 1989; 56: 59
        • Levy J.A.
        Human immunodeficiency viruses and the pathogenesis of AIDS.
        JAMA. 1989; 261: 2997
        • Levy J.A.
        • Hoffman A.D.
        • Kramer S.M.
        • et al.
        Isolation of lymphocytopathic retroviruses from San Francisco patients with AIDS.
        Science. 1984; 225: 840
        • Lewis S.H.
        • Reynolds-Kohler C.
        • Fox H.E.
        • et al.
        HIV-1 in trophoblastic and villous Hofbauer cells and haematological precursors in eight-week fetuses.
        Lancet. 1990; 1: 565
        • Ljunggren K.
        • Böttiger B.
        • Biberfeld G.
        • et al.
        Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity-inducing antibodies against human immunodeficiency virus: Presence at different clinical stages.
        J Immunol. 1987; 139 (infection. J Immunol 139:2263;1987, 75:184, 1989): 2263
        • Ljunggren K.
        • Broliden P.A.
        • Morfeldt-Manson L.
        • et al.
        IgG subclass response to HIV in relation to antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity at different clinical stages.
        Clin Exp Immunol. 1988; 73: 343
        • Ljunggren K.
        • Karlson A.
        • Fenyö E.M.
        • et al.
        Natural and antibody-dependent cytotoxicity in different clinical stages of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection.
        Clin Exp Immunol. 1989; 9: 454
        • Ljunggren K.
        • Moschese V.
        • Broliden P.A.
        • et al.
        Antibodies mediating cellular cytotoxicity and neutralization correlate with a better clinical stage in children bom to human immunodeficiency virus-infected mothers.
        J Infect Dis. 1989; 161: 198
        • Loche M.
        • Mach B.
        Identification of HIV-infected seronegative individuals by a direct diagnostic test based on hybridization to amplified viral DNA.
        Lancet. 1988; 2: 418
        • Lombardo J.M.
        HIV-1 testing: An overview.
        Am Clin Prod Rev. 1987; 10
        • Lyman W.D.
        • Tanaka K.E.
        • Kress Y.
        • et al.
        Zidovudine concentrations in human fetal tissue: Implications for perinatal AIDS [letter].
        Lancet. 1990; 2: 1280
        • Marlink R.G.
        • Allan J.S.
        • McLane M.F.
        • et al.
        Low sensitivity of ELISA testing in early HIV infection.
        N Engl J Med. 1986; 315: 1549
        • Martin K.
        • Katz B.Z.
        • Miller G.
        AIDS and antibodies to human immunodeficiency vims (HIV) in children and their families.
        J Infect Dis. 1987; 155: 54
        • Martin N.L.
        • Levy J.A.
        • Legg H.
        • et al.
        Detection of infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 in infants by an anti-HIV immunoglobulin A assay using recombinant proteins.
        J Pediatr. 1991; 118: 354
        • McChesney M.B.
        • Oldstone B.A.
        Virus-induced immunosuppression: Infections with measles virus and human immunodeficiency virus.
        Adv Immunol. 1989; 45: 335
        • McHugh T.M.
        • Stites D.P.
        • Busch M.P.
        • et al.
        Relation of circulating levels of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) antigen, antibody to p24, and HIV-containing immune complexes in HIV-infected patients.
        J Infect Dis. 1988; 158: 1088
        • McSharry J.J.
        • Constantino R.
        • Robbiano E.
        • et al.
        Detection and quantitation of human immunodeficiency virus—infected peripheral blood mononuclear cells by flow cytometry.
        J Clin Microbiol. 1990; 28: 724
        • Mendenhall C.L.
        • Roselle G.A.
        • Grossman C.Y.
        False positive tests for HTLV-III antibodies in alcoholic patients with hepatitis.
        N Engl J Med. 1986; 314: 921
        • Menitove J.E.
        The decreasing risk of transfusion-associated AIDS.
        N Engl J Med. 1989; 321: 966
        • Meyer K.B.
        • Parker S.G.
        Screening for HIV: Can we afford the false positive rate?.
        N Engl J Med. 1987; 317: 238
        • Minkoff H.
        • Nanda D.
        • Menez R.
        • et al.
        Pregnancies resulting in infants with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or AIDS-related complex: Follow-up of mothers, children and subsequently bom siblings.
        Obstet Gynecol. 1987; 69: 288
        • Modrow S.
        • Höflacher B.
        • Gürtler L.
        • et al.
        Carrier bound synthetic oligopeptides in ELISA test systems for distinction between HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection.
        Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. 1989; 2: 141
        • Monroe J.E.
        • Andrews C.
        • Sullivan J.L.
        • et al.
        Use of cytoplasmic dot-blot hybridization to detect human immunodeficiency vims RNA sequences in cultures of peripheral blood.
        J Infect Dis. 1987; 155: 320
        • Moss A.R.
        • Bacchetti P.
        Natural history of HIV infection.
        AIDS. 1989; 3: 55
        • Nakamura R.M.
        • Tucker III., E.S.
        • Carlson I.H.
        Immunoassays in the Clinical Laboratory.
        in: Henry J.B. Clinical Diagnosis and Management by Laboratory Methods. Saunders, Philadelphia1991: 862
        • Nishanian P.
        • Huskins K.R.
        • Stehn S.
        • et al.
        A simple method for improved assay demonstrates that HIV p24 antigen is present as immune complexes in most sera from HIV-infected individuals.
        J Infect Dis. 1990; 162: 21
        • Norrby E.
        • Biberfeld G.
        • Chiodi F.
        • et al.
        Discrimination between antibodies to HIV and to related retroviruses using site-directed serology.
        Nature. 1987; 329: 248
        • O’Gorman M.R.
        • Weber D.
        • Landis S.E.
        • et al.
        Interpretive criteria of the Western blot assay for serodiagnosis of human immunodeficiency vims type 1 infection.
        Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1991; 115: 26
        • Ohlsson-Wilhelm B.M.
        • Cory J.M.
        • Kessler H.A.
        • et al.
        Circulating human immunodeficiency vims (HIV) p 24 antigen-positive lymphocytes: A flow cytometric measure of HIV infection.
        J Infect Dis. 1990; 162: 1018
        • Ojo-Amaize E.
        • Nishanian P.G.
        • Heitjan D.F.
        • et al.
        Semm and effector-cell antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) activity remains high during human immunodeficiency vims (HIV) disease progression.
        J Clin Immunol. 1989; 9: 454
        • Ou C.Y.
        • Kwok S.
        • Mitchell S.W.
        • et al.
        DNA amplification for direct detection of HIV-1 in DNA of peripheral blood mononuclear cells.
        Science. 1988; 239: 295
        • Palomba E.
        • David O.
        • Boltri A.
        • et al.
        Increased erythrocyte adenosine deaminase activity in children with perinatal human immunodeficiency vims infection.
        Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1989; 8: 862
        • Paul D.A.
        • Falk L.A.
        • Kessler H.A.
        • et al.
        Correlation of semm HIV antigen and antibody with clinical status in HIV-infected patients.
        J Med Virol. 1987; 22: 357
        • Pahwa S.
        • Chirmule N.
        • Leombmno C.
        • et al.
        In vitro synthesis of human immunodeficiency virus-specific antibodies in peripheral blood lymphocytes of infants.
        Proc Natl Acad Sri USA. 1989; 86: 7532
        • Pedersen C.
        • Nielsen C.M.
        • Vestergaard B.F.
        • et al.
        Temporal relation of antigenaemia and loss of antibodies to core antigens to development of clinical disease in HIV infection.
        Br Med J. 1987; 295: 567
        • Persing D.H.
        Polymerase chain reaction: Trenches to benches.
        J Clin Microbiol. 1991; 29: 1281
        • Peterman T.A.
        • Lang G.R.
        • Mikos N.J.
        • et al.
        HTLV-III/LAV infection in hemodialysis patients.
        JAMA. 1986; 255: 2324
        • Petricciani J.C.
        Licensed tests for antibody to human T-lymphotropic virus type III.
        Ann Intern Med. 1985; 103: 726
        • Pezzella M.
        • Rossi P.
        • Lombardi V.
        • et al.
        HIV viral sequences in seronegative people at risk detected by in situ hybridisation and polymerase chain reaction.
        Br Med J. 1989; 298: 713
        • Piot P.
        • Plummer F.A.
        • Mhalu F.S.
        • et al.
        AIDS: An international perspective.
        Science. 1988; 239: 573
        • Polesky H.F.
        • Hanson M.
        Serologic tests to detect infection with human immunodeficiency virus.
        Clin Immunol Newsletter. 1990; 10: 5
        • Pollard J.W.
        • Perry C.R.
        • Thurston C.F.
        • et al.
        Northern blotting.
        in: Walker J.M. Methods in Molecular Biology. vol 4. Humana Press, Clifton1988: 13
        • Popovic M.
        • Samgadharan M.G.
        • Read E.
        • et al.
        Detection, isolation, and continuous production of cytopathic retroviruses (HTLV-III) from patients with AIDS and pre-Aids.
        Science. 1984; 224: 497
        • Povolotsky J.
        • Gold J.W.
        • Chein N.
        • et al.
        Differences in human immunodeficiency virus type I (HIV-1) anti-p24 reactivities in serum of HIV-1 infected and uninfected subjects: Analysis of indeterminate Western blot reactions.
        J Infect Dis. 1991; 163: 247
        • Quinn T.C.
        • Riggin C.H.
        • Kline R.L.
        • et al.
        Rapid latex agglutination assay using recombinant envelope polypeptide for the detection of antibody to the HIV.
        JAMA. 1988; 260: 510
        • Ranki A.
        • Valle S.-L.
        • Krohn M.
        • et al.
        Long latency precedes overt seroconversion in sexually transmitted human-immunodeficiency-virus infection.
        Lancet. 1987; 2: 589
        • Rayfield M.
        • DeCock K.
        • Heyward W.
        • et al.
        Mixed human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in an individual: Demonstration of both HIV type 1 and type 2 proviral sequences by using polymerase chain reaction.
        J Infect Dis. 1988; 158: 1170
        • Reagan K.J.
        • Lile C.C.
        • Book G.W.
        • et al.
        Use of urine for HIV-1 antibody screening.
        Lancet. 1990; 1: 358
        • Reddy M.M.
        • Grieco M.H.
        Elevated soluble interleukin-2 receptor levels in serum of human immunodeficiency virus infected populations.
        AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 1988; 4: 115
        • Redfield R.R.
        • Burke D.S.
        HIV infection: The clinical picture.
        Sei Am. 1988; 259: 90
        • Reesink H.W.
        • Lelie P.N.
        • Huisman J.G.
        • et al.
        Evaluation of six enzyme immunoassays for antibody against human immunodeficiency virus.
        Lancet. 1986; 2: 483
        • Rhame F.S.
        • Maki D.G.
        The case for wider use of testing for HIV infection.
        N Engl J Med. 1989; 320: 1248
        • Riggin C.H.
        • Beltz G.A.
        • Hung C.-H.
        • et al.
        Detection of antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus by latex agglutination with recombinant antigen.
        J Clin Microbiol. 1987; 25: 1772
        • Riggin C.H.
        • Chenet-Monte C.
        HIV-1 testing by latex agglutination.
        Clin Microbiol Newsletter. 1990; 12: 35
        • Rogers M.F.
        • Ou C.Y.
        • Rayfield M.
        • et al.
        Use of polymerase chain reaction for early detection of the postviral sequences of human immunodeficiency virus in infants bom to seropositive mothers.
        N Engl J Med. 1989; 320: 1649
        • Roilides E.
        • Black C.
        • Reimer C.
        • et al.
        Semm immunoglobulin G subclasses in children infected with human immunodeficiency vims type I.
        Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1991; 10: 134
        • Rook A.H.
        • Lane H.C.
        • Folks T.
        • et al.
        Sera from HTLVIII/LAV antibody-positive individuals mediate antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity against HTLVIII/LAV-infected T cells.
        J Immunol. 1987; 138: 1064
        • Rosenberg Z.F.
        • Fauci A.S.
        Immunopathogenesis of HIV infection.
        FASEB J. 1991; 5: 2382
        • Rossi P.
        • Moschese V.
        • Broliden P.A.
        • et al.
        Presence of maternal antibodies to human immunodeficiency vims 1 envelope glycoprotein gpl20 epitopes correlates with the uninfected status of children bom to seropositive mothers.
        Proc Natl Acad Sri USA. 1989; 86: 8055
        • Sandstrom E.G.
        • Schooley R.T.
        • Ho D.D.
        • et al.
        Detection of human anti-HTLV-III antibodies by indirect immunofluorescence using fixed cells.
        Transfusion. 1985; 25: 308
        • Samgadharan M.G.
        • Popovic M.
        • Bmch L.
        • et al.
        Antibodies reactive with human T-lymphotropic retroviruses (HTLV-III) in the serum of patients with AIDS.
        Science. 1984; 224: 506
        • Schochetman G.
        • Epstein J.S.
        • Zuck T.F.
        Serodiagnosis of infection with the AIDS virus and other human retroviruses.
        Annu Rev Microbiol. 1989; 43: 629
        • Schüpbach J.
        Human retrovirology facts and concepts.
        Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Springer-Verlag, New York1989: 27
        • Schüpbach J.
        • Haller O.
        • Vogt M.
        • et al.
        Antibodies to HTLV-III in Swiss patients with AIDS and pre-AIDS and in groups at risk for AIDS.
        N Engl J Med. 1985; 312: 265
        • Schüpbach J.
        • Popovic M.
        • Gilden R.V.
        • et al.
        Serological analysis of a subgroup of human T-lymphotropic retroviruses (HTLV-III) associated with AIDS.
        Science. 1984; 224: 503
        • Schwartz J.S.
        • Dans P.E.
        • Kinosian B.P.
        Human immunodeficiency virus test evaluation, performance, and use.
        JAMA. 1988; 259: 2574
        • Schwartz J.S.
        • Kinosian B.P.
        • Pierskalla W.P.
        • et al.
        Strategies for screening blood for human immunodeficiency virus antibody.
        JAMA. 1990; 264: 1704
        • Scott G.B.
        • Fischl M.A.
        • Klimas N.
        • et al.
        Mothers of infants with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.
        JAMA. 1985; 253: 363
        • Shaw G.M.
        • Hahn B.H.
        • Arya S.K.
        • et al.
        Molecular characterization of human T-cell leukemia (lymphotropic) virus type III in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome.
        Science. 1984; 226: 1165
        • Shaw G.M.
        • Harper M.E.
        • Hahn B.H.
        • et al.
        HTLV-III infection in brains of children and adults with AIDS encephalopathy.
        Science. 1985; 227: 177
        • Sirianni M.C.
        • DeSanctis G.
        • Macchi B.
        • et al.
        Natural killer activity from normal peripheral blood lymphocytes against a human T-lymphotrophic retrovirus type III (HTLV-III)-infected cell line.
        Diag Clin Immunol. 1988; 5: 297
        • Sivak S.L.
        • Wormser G.P.
        Predictive value of a screening test for antibodies to HTLV-III.
        Am J Clin Pathol. 1986; 85: 700
        • Smith D.M.
        • Dewhurst S.
        • Shepherd S.
        • et al.
        False-positive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay reactions for antibody to human immunodeficiency virus in a population of midwestern patients with congenital bleeding disorders.
        Transfusion. 1987; 127: 112
        • Smith R.S.
        • Parks D.E.
        Synthetic peptide assays to detect human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2 in seropositive individuals.
        Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1990; 114: 254
        • Sninsky J.J.
        • Kwok S.
        Detection of human immunodeficiency viruses by the polymerase chain reaction.
        Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1990; 114: 259
        • Steckelberg J.M.
        • Cockerill III., F.R.
        Serologic testing for human immunodeficiency virus antibodies.
        Mayo Clin Proc. 1988; 63: 373
        • Steffy K.
        • Wong-Staal F.
        Genetic regulation of human immunodeficiency virus.
        Microbiol Rev. 1991; 55: 193
        • Steimer K.S.
        • Wiggins K.W.
        • Powers M.A.
        • et al.
        Recombinant polypeptide from the endonuclease region of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome retrovirus polymerase (pol) gene detects serum antibodies in most infected individuals.
        J Virol. 1986; 58: 9
        • Stevens R.W.
        • McQuillan G.M.
        Serodiagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections.
        in: Henry J.B. Clinical Diagnosis and Management by Laboratory Methods. Saunders, Philadelphia1991: 912-915
        • Stramer S.L.
        • Heller J.S.
        • Coombs R.W.
        • et al.
        Markers of HIV infection prior to IgG antibody seropositivity.
        JAMA. 1989; 262: 64
        • Sunzeri F.J.
        • Lee T.H.
        • Brownlee R.G.
        • et al.
        Rapid simultaneous detection of multiple retroviral DNA sequences using the polymerase chain reaction and capillary DNA chromatography.
        Blood. 1991; 77: 879
        • Tegtmeier G.E.
        Current tests for serologic detection of HIV-1 infection.
        J Clin Immunoassay. 1988; 11: 123
        • Tersmette M.
        • Lelie P.N.
        • van der Poel C.L.
        • et al.
        Confirmation of HIV seropositivity: Comparison of a novel radioimmunoprecipitation assay to immunoblotting and virus culture.
        J Med Virol. 1988; 24: 109
        • Tyler D.S.
        • Stanley S.D.
        • Nastala C.A.
        • et al.
        Alterations in antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity during the course of HIV-1 infection.
        J Immunol. 1990; 144: 3375
        • Ujhelyi E.
        • Füst G.
        • Mihaleczky G.
        • et al.
        Studies of the sensitivity and reproducibility of commercial kits to detect antibodies to the human immunodeficiency virus.
        Transfusion. 1987; 27: 210
        • Unger E.R.
        • Chandler F.W.
        • Chenggis M.L.
        • et al.
        Demonstration of human immunodeficiency virus by colorimetric in situ hybridization: A rapid technique for formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded material.
        Modem Pathology. 1989; 2: 200
        • Vaishnav Y.N.
        • Wong-Staal F.
        The Biochemistry of AIDS.
        Ann Rev Biochem. 1991; 60: 577
        • Valdiserri R.O.
        • Taylor R.N.
        • Heam T.L.
        • et al.
        Centers for Disease Control perspective on quality assurance for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 antibody testing.
        Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1990; 114: 263
        • Vasudevachari M.B.
        • Uffelman K.W.
        • Mast T.C.
        • et al.
        Passive hemagglutination test for detection of antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and comparison of the test with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Western Blot (immunoblot) analysis.
        J Clin Microbiol. 1989; 27: 179
        • Viscarello R.R.
        • Hobbins J.C.
        The presence of human immunodeficiency virus p24 antigen in amniotic fluid as a clinical marker for postpartum disease progression [abstract 319].
        39th Annual Meeting of the Society of Perinatal Obstetricians. TX, Houston1990
        • Voth R.
        • Rossol S.
        • Gräff E.
        • et al.
        Natural killer cell activity as a prognostic parameter in the progression to AIDS.
        J Infect Dis. 1988; 157: 851
        • Wages Jr., J.M.
        • Hamdallah M.
        • Calabro M.A.
        • et al.
        Clinical performance of a polymerase chain reaction testing algorithm for diagnosis of HIV-1 infection in peripheral blood mononuclear cells.
        J Med Virol. 1991; 33: 58
        • Walker C.M.
        • Levy J.A.
        A diffuse lymphokine produced by CD8+T lymphocytes suppresses HIV replication.
        Immunology. 1989; 66: 620
        • Ward J.W.
        • Grindon A.J.
        • Feorino P.M.
        • et al.
        Laboratory and epidemiologic evaluation of an enzyme immunoassay for antibodies to HTLV-III.
        JAMA. 1986; 256: 357
        • Ward J.W.
        • Holmberg S.C.
        • Allen J.R.
        • et al.
        Transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) by blood transfusions screened as negative for HIV antibody.
        N Engl J Med. 1988; 318: 473
        • Weiss S.H.
        • Goedert J.J.
        • Samgadharan M.G.
        • et al.
        Screening test for HTLV-III (AIDS agent) antibodies.
        JAMA. 1985; 253: 221
        • Williams P.
        • Simmonds P.
        • Yap P.L.
        • et al.
        The polymerase chain reaction in the diagnosis of vertically transmitted HIV infection.
        AIDS. 1990; 4: 393
        • Wiriott L.D.
        • Walker C.M.
        • Levy J.A.
        CD8+ lymphocytes suppress HIV production by autologous CD4+ cells without eliminating the infected cells from culture.
        Cell Immunol. 1990; 128: 628
        • Wittek A.E.
        • Phelan M.A.
        • Wells M.A.
        • et al.
        Detection of human immunodeficiency virus core protein in plasma by enzyme immunoassay.
        Ann Intern Med. 1987; 107: 286
        • Wong-Staal F.
        • Gallo R.C.
        Human T-lymphotropic retroviruses.
        Nature. 1985; 317: 395
        • Wood C.C.
        • Williams A.E.
        • McNamara J.G.
        • et al.
        Antibody against the human immunodeficiency virus in commercial intravenous gammaglobulin preparations.
        Ann Intern Med. 1986; 105: 536
        • Yankey R.J.
        • Keiser J.F.
        • Kim J.I.
        • et al.
        Evaluation of two confirmatory assays, Western Blot and indirect fluorescence, for the detection of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) antibodies.
        Diag Clin Testing. 1989; 27: 48
      2. Ziegner UHM, Frank I, Bematowicz A, et al: Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) is directed against immunodominant epitopes of the envelope proteins of human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1), in press