Advertisement
Review article| Volume 23, ISSUE 2, P413-442, June 2003

Download started.

Ok

Prenatal screening, epidemiology, diagnosis, and management of preeclampsia

  • Deirdre J Lyell
    Affiliations
    Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
    Search for articles by this author
  • Geralyn M Lambert-Messerlian
    Correspondence
    Corresponding author. Women and Infants Hospital, Division of Prenatal and Special Testing, 70 Elm Street, 2nd Floor, Providence, RI 02903
    Affiliations
    Division of Prenatal and Special Testing, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Women and Infants Hospital, Brown Medical School, 70 Elm Street, 2nd floor, Providence, RI 02903, USA
    Search for articles by this author
  • Linda C Giudice
    Affiliations
    Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
    Search for articles by this author
      Preeclampsia is a disease that is unique to pregnancy and causes significant maternal, fetal, and neonatal morbidity and mortality worldwide. No single test identifies which women will develop preeclampsia and whether the disease will manifest early or severely. Methods for early identification of women destined to develop preeclampsia and treatment options other than delivery are needed urgently. A sensitive and specific screening marker could shed light on the disease pathophysiology, identify patients who are at risk for development of the disease, allow for targeted study of treatments among the highest-risk groups, and define those patients who should be included in research studies. Patients with a previous pregnancy affected by severe disease could be counseled regarding their recurrence risk, and patients who are identified as high risk could be followed more closely.
      To read this article in full you will need to make a payment

      Purchase one-time access:

      Academic & Personal: 24 hour online accessCorporate R&D Professionals: 24 hour online access
      One-time access price info
      • For academic or personal research use, select 'Academic and Personal'
      • For corporate R&D use, select 'Corporate R&D Professionals'

      Subscribers receive full online access to your subscription and archive of back issues up to and including 2002.

      Content published before 2002 is available via pay-per-view purchase only.

      Subscribe:

      Subscribe to Clinics in Laboratory Medicine
      Already a print subscriber? Claim online access
      Already an online subscriber? Sign in
      Institutional Access: Sign in to ScienceDirect

      References

        • De Groot C.J
        • Bloemenkamp K.W
        • Duvekot E.J
        • et al.
        Preeclampsia and genetic risk factors for thrombosis: a case-control study.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999; 181: 975-980
        • Koonin L.M
        • MacKay A.P
        • Berg C.J
        • et al.
        Pregnancy-related mortality surveillance—United States, 1987–1990.
        MMWRSurveill Summ. 1997; 46: 17-36
        • Roberts J.M
        Pregnancy-related hypertension.
        in: Creasy R.K Resnick R Maternal-fetal medicine. 4th edition. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia1999: 833-871
        • Chesley L.C
        History and epidemilogy of preeclampsia-eclampsia.
        Clin Obstet Gynecol. 1984; 28: 801-820
        • Sibai B.M
        Preeclampsia-eclampsia.
        Curr Probl Obstet Gynecol Fertil. 1990; 13: 1-45
        • Sibai B.M
        • Gordon T
        • Thom E
        • et al.
        Obstetrics: risk factors for preeclampsia in healthy nulliparous women: a prospective multicenter study.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995; 172: 642-648
        • Siddiqi T
        • Rosenn B
        • Mimouni F
        • et al.
        Hypertension during pregnancy in insulin dependent diabetic women.
        Obstet Gynecol. 1991; 77: 514-519
        • Villar M.A
        • Sibai B.M
        Clinical significance of elevated mean arterial blood pressure in second trimester and threshold increase in systolic or diastolic blood pressure during pregnancy.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989; 160: 419-423
        • Maman E
        • Lunenfeld E
        • Levy A
        • et al.
        Obstetric outcome of singleton pregnancies conceived by in vitro fertilization and ovulation induction compared with those conceived spontaneously.
        Fertil Steril. 1998; 70: 240-245
        • Eskenazi B
        • Fenster L
        • Sidney S
        A multivariate analysis of risk factors for preeclampsia.
        JAMA. 1991; 266: 237-241
        • Seidman D.S
        • Ever-Hadani P
        • Stevenson D.K
        • et al.
        The effect of abortion on the incidence of pre-eclampsia.
        Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1989; 33: 109-114
        • Trupin L.S
        • Simon L.P
        • Eskenazi B
        Change in paternity: a risk factor for preeclampsia in multiparas.
        Epidemiology. 1996; 7: 240-244
        • Ikedife D
        Eclampsia in multiparae.
        BMJ. 1980; 280: 985-986
      1. National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group Report on High Blood Pressure in Pregnancy.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990; 163: 1691-1712
      2. Report of the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Pregnancy.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000; 183: S1-S22
        • Levine R.J
        • Ewell M.G
        • Hauth J.C
        • et al.
        Should the definition of preeclampsia include a rise in diastolic blood pressure ≥15 mm Hg to a level of <90 mm Hg in association with proteinuria?.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000; 183: 787-792
        • Meyer N.L
        • Mercer B.M
        • Friedman S.A
        • et al.
        Urinary dipstick protein: a poor predictor of absent or severe proteinuria.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1994; 170: 137-141
      3. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Practice Bulletin. Diagnosis and management of preeclampsia and eclampsia. 2002.

        • Saudan P
        • Brown M.A
        • Buddle M.L
        • et al.
        Does gestational hypertension become pre-eclampsia?.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1998; 105: 1177-1184
        • Weinstein L
        Syndrome of hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelet count: a severe consequence of hypertension.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1982; 142: 159-167
        • Sibai B.M
        • Ramadan M.K
        • Usta I
        • et al.
        Maternal morbidity and mortality in 442 pregnancies with hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets (HELLP syndrome).
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993; 169: 1000-1006
        • Sibai B.M
        • Caritis S.N
        • Thom E
        • et al.
        Prevention of preeclampsia with low-dose aspirin in healthy, nulliparous pregnant women.
        N Engl J Med. 1993; 329: 1213-1218
        • Sibai B.M
        • Akl S
        • Fairlie F
        • et al.
        A protocol for managing severe preeclampsia in the second trimester.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990; 163: 733-738
        • Sibai B.M
        • Mercer B.M
        • Schiff E
        • et al.
        Aggressive versus expectant management of severe preeclampsia at 28 to 32 weeks' gestation: a randomized controlled trial.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1994; 171: 818-822
        • Dukler D
        • Bashiri A
        • Erez O
        • et al.
        The recurrence risk of preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000; 182 ([abstract]): S72
        • Sibai B.M
        • Mercer B
        • Sarinoglu C
        Severe preeclampsia in the second trimester: recurrence risk and long-term prognosis.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1991; 165: 1408-1412
        • Madazli R
        • Budak E
        • Calay Z
        • et al.
        Correlation between placental bed biopsy findings vascular cell adhesion molecule and fibronectin levels in pre-eclampsia.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2000; 107: 514-518
        • Dekker G.A
        • Robillard P.Y
        • Hulsey T.C
        Immune maladaptation in the etiology of preeclampsia: a review of corroborative epidemiologic studies.
        Obstet Gynecol Surv. 1998; 53: 377-382
        • Klonoff-Cohen H.S
        • Savitz D.A
        • Cefalo R.C
        An epidemiologic study of contraception and preeclampsia.
        JAMA. 1989; 262: 3143-3147
        • Robillard P.Y
        • Hulsey T.C
        • Perianin J
        • et al.
        Association of pregnancy-induced hypertension with duration of sexual cohabitation before conception.
        Lancet. 1994; 344: 973-975
        • Gant N.F
        • Daley G.L
        • Chand S
        • et al.
        A study of angiotensin II pressor response throughout primigravid pregnancy.
        J Clin Invest. 1973; 52: 2682-2689
        • Wallukat G
        • Homuth V
        • Fischer T
        • et al.
        Patients with preeclampsia develop agonistic autoantibodies against the angiotensin AT1 receptor.
        J Clin Invest. 1999; 103: 945-952
        • Benigni A
        • Gregorini G
        • Frusca T
        • et al.
        Effect of low-dose aspirin on fetal and maternal generation of thromboxane by platelets in women at risk for pregnancy-induced hypertension.
        N Engl J Med. 1989; 321: 357-362
        • Sibai B.M
        • Mirro R
        • Chesney C.M
        • et al.
        Low-dose aspirin in pregnancy.
        Obstet Gynecol. 1989; 74: 551-557
        • Imperiale T.F
        • Petralis A.S
        A meta-analysis of low-dose aspirin for the prevention of pregnancy induced hypertensive disease.
        JAMA. 1991; 266: 260-264
        • Hauth J.C
        • Goldenberg R.L
        • Parker C.R
        • et al.
        Low-dose aspirin therapy to prevent preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993; 168: 1083-1093
        • Collaborative Low-Dose Aspirin Study in Pregnancy
        A randomised trial of low-dose aspirin for the prevention and treatment of pre-eclampsia among 9364 pregnant women.
        Lancet. 1994; 343: 616-617
        • Caritis S
        • Sibai B
        • Hauth J
        • et al.
        Low-dose aspirin to prevent preeclampsia in women at high risk.
        N Engl J Med. 1998; 338: 701-705
        • Levine R.J
        • Hauth J.C
        • Curet L.B
        • et al.
        Trial of Calcium to Prevent Preeclampsia.
        N Engl J Med. 1997; 337: 69-76
        • Chappell L.C
        • Seed P.T
        • Briley A.L
        • et al.
        Effect of antioxidants on the occurrence of pre-eclampsia in women at increased risk: a randomised trial.
        Lancet. 1999; 354: 810-816
        • Kuo V.S
        • Koumantakis G
        • Gallery E.D
        Proteinuria and its assessment in normal and hypertensive pregnancy.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1992; 167: 723-728
        • Rodriguez-Thompson D
        • Lieberman E.S
        Use of a random urinary protein-to-creatinine ratio for the diagnosis of significant proteinuria during pregnancy.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 185: 808-811
        • Boyle J.A
        • Campbell S
        • Duncan A.M
        Serum uric acid levels in normal pregnancy with observations on the renal excretion of urate in pregnancy.
        J Clin Pathol. 1966; 19: 501-503
        • Chesley L
        • Williams L
        Renal glomerular and tubular function in relation to the hyperuricemia of preeclampsia and eclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1945; 50: 367-375
        • Many A
        • Hubel C.A
        • Roberts J.M
        Hyperuricemia and xanthine oxidase in preeclampsia, revisited.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996; 174: 288-291
        • Shuster E
        • Weppelman B
        Plasma urate measurements and fetal outcome in preeclampsia.
        Gynecol Obstet Invest. 1981; 12: 162
        • Livingston J.C
        • Barton J.R
        • Park V
        • et al.
        Maternal and fetal inherited thrombophilias are not related to the development of severe preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 185: 153-157
        • Burrows R.F
        • Kelton J.G
        Fetal thrombocytopenia and its relation to maternal thrombocytopenia.
        N Engl J Med. 1993; 329: 1463-1466
        • Chesley L.C
        Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York1978
        • Knox T.A
        • Olans L.B
        Liver disease in pregnancy.
        N Engl J Med. 1996; 335: 569-576
        • Kobayashi T
        • Terao T
        Preeclampsia as chronic disseminated intravascular coagulation. Study of two parameters: thrombin-antithrombin III complex and D-dimers.
        Gynecol Obstet Invest. 1987; 24: 170-178
        • Myatt L
        • Miodovnik M
        Prediction of preeclampsia.
        Semin Perinatol. 1999; 23: 45-57
        • Roberts J.M
        Preeclampsia: is there value in assessing before clinically evident disease?.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 98: 596-599
        • Brosens I.A
        • Robertson W.B
        • Dixon H.G
        The role of the spiral arteries in the pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia.
        Obstet Gynecol Annu. 1972; 1: 177-191
        • Browne J.C.M
        • Veall N
        The maternal placental blood flow in normotensive and hypertensive women.
        J Obstet Gynaecol Br Emp. 1953; 60: 141-147
        • Campbell S
        • Diaz-Recasens J
        • Griffin D.R
        • et al.
        New Doppler technique for assessing uteroplacental blood flow.
        Lancet. 1983; I: 675-677
        • Mo L.Y
        • Bascom P.A
        • McCowan L.M.E
        • et al.
        A transmission line modeling approach to the interpretation of uterine Doppler waveforms.
        Ultrasound Med Biol. 1988; 14: 365-376
        • Bower S
        • Bewley S
        • Campbell S
        Improved prediction of preeclampsia by two-stage screening of uterine arteries using the early diastolic notch and color Doppler imaging.
        Obstet Gynecol. 1993; 82: 78-83
        • Harrington K.F
        • Campbell S
        • Bewley S
        • et al.
        Doppler velocimetry studies of the uterine artery in the early prediction of pre-eclampsia and intra-uterine growth retardation.
        Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1991; 42: S14-S20
        • Jacobson S.L
        • Imhof R
        • Manning N
        • et al.
        The value of Doppler assessment of the uteroplacental circulation in predicting preeclampsia or intrauterine growth retardation.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990; 162: 110-114
        • Aardema M.W
        • Lander M
        • Oosterhof H
        • et al.
        Doppler ultrasound screening predicts recurrence of poor pregnancy outcome in subsequent pregnancies, but not the recurrence of PIH or preeclampsia.
        Hypertens Pregnancy. 2000; 19: 281-288
        • Cuckle H
        • Sehmi I
        • Jones R
        Maternal serum inhibin A can predict pre-eclampsia.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1998; 105: 1101-1103
        • Lambert-Messerlian G.M
        • Silver H.M
        • Petraglia F
        • et al.
        Second-trimester levels of maternal serum human chorionic gonadotrophin and inhibin A as predictors of preeclampsia in the third trimester of pregnancy.
        J Soc Gynecol Investig. 2000; 7: 170-174
        • Morssink L.P
        • Heringa M.P
        • Beekhuis J.R
        • et al.
        The association between hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and abnormal second-trimester maternal serum levels of hCG and alpha-fetoprotein.
        Obstet Gynecol. 1997; 89: 666-670
        • Pouta A.M
        • Hartikainen A.-L
        • Vuolteenaho O.J
        • et al.
        Midtrimester N-terminal proatrial natriuretic peptide, free beta hCG, and alpha-fetoprotein in predicting preeclampsia.
        Obstet Gynecol. 1998; 91: 940-944
        • Raty R
        • Koskinen P
        • Alanen A
        • et al.
        Prediction of pre-eclampsia with maternal mid-trimester total renin, inhibin A, AFP and free beta-hCG levels.
        Prenat Diagn. 1999; 19: 122-127
        • Stamilio D.M
        • Sehdev H.M
        • Morgan M.A
        • et al.
        Can antenatal clinical and biochemical markers predict the development of severe preeclampsia?.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000; 182: 589-594
        • Wald N.J
        • Morris J.K
        Multiple marker second trimester serum screening for pre-eclampsia.
        J Med Screen. 2001; 8: 65-68
        • Aquilina J
        • Barnett A
        • Thompson O
        • et al.
        Second-trimester maternal serum inhibin A concentration as an early marker for preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999; 181: 131-136
        • Muttukrishna S
        • North R.A
        • Morris J
        • et al.
        Serum inhibin A and activin A are elevated prior to the onset of preeclampsia.
        Hum Reprod. 2000; 15: 1640-1645
        • Sebire N.J
        • Roberts L
        • Noble P
        • et al.
        Raised maternal serum inhibin A concentration at 10 to 14 weeks of gestation is associated with pre-eclampsia.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2000; 107: 795-797
        • Aquilina J
        • Maplethorpe R
        • Ellis P
        • et al.
        Correlation between second trimester maternal serum inhibin-A and human chorionic gonadotrophin for the prediction of pre-eclampsia.
        Placenta. 2000; 21: 487-492
        • Ashour A.M.N
        • Lieberman E.S
        • Haug L.E
        • et al.
        The value of elevated second-trimester beta-human chorionic gonadotrophin in predicting development of preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997; 176: 438-442
        • Reis F.M
        • D'Antona D
        • Petraglia F
        Predictive value of hormone measurements in maternal and fetal complications of pregnancy.
        Endocrine Reviews. 2002; 23: 230-257
        • Casart Y.C
        • Camejo M.I
        • Proverbio F
        • et al.
        Bioactivity of serum hCG in preeclampsia.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 98: 463-465
        • Bahado-Singh R.O
        • Oz U
        • Isozaki T
        • et al.
        Midtrimester urine human chorionic gonadotrophin β-subunit core fragment levels and the subsequent development of pre-eclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998; 179: 738-741
        • Bahado-Singh R.O
        • Oz A.U
        • Kingston J.M
        • et al.
        The role of hyperglycosylated hCG in trophoblast invasion and the prediction of subsequent pre-eclampsia.
        Prenat Diagn. 2002; 22: 478-481
        • Williams M.A
        • Luthy D.A
        • Zingheim R.W
        • et al.
        Urinary gonadotropin peptide levels in preeclamptic and normotensive pregnant women. Results from a pilot case-control study.
        Gynecol Obstet Invest. 1998; 45: 24-28
        • Keelan J.A
        • Taylor R
        • Schellenberg J.C
        • et al.
        Serum activin A, inhibin A, and follistatin concentrations in preeclampsia or small for gestational age pregnancies.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2002; 99: 267-274
        • Manuelpillai U
        • Schneider-Kolsky M
        • Dole A
        • et al.
        Activin A and activin receptors in gestational tissue from preeclamptic pregnancies.
        J Endocrinol. 2001; 171: 57-64
        • Muttukrishna S
        • Knight P.G
        • Grrome N.P
        • et al.
        Activin A and inhibin A as possible endocrine markers for pre-eclampsia.
        Lancet. 1997; 349: 1285-1288
        • Silver H.M
        • Lambert-Messerlian G.M
        • Star J.A
        • et al.
        Comparison of maternal serum activin A and inhibin A in normal, preeclamptic, and nonproteinuric gestationally hypertensive pregnancies.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999; 180: 1131-1137
        • Grobman W.A
        • Wang E.Y
        Serum levels of activin A and inhibin A and the subsequent development of preeclampsia.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2000; 96: 390-394
        • Lee L.-C
        • Sheu B.-C
        • Shau W.-Y
        • et al.
        Mid-trimester β-hCG levels incorporated in a multifactorial model for the prediction of severe pre-eclampsia.
        Prenat Diagn. 2000; 20: 738-743
        • Aquilina J
        • Thompson O
        • Thilaganathan B
        • et al.
        Improved early prediction of pre-eclampsia by combining second-trimester maternal serum inhibin-A and uterine artery Doppler.
        Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 17: 477-484
        • Smith G.C.S
        • Stenhouse E.J
        • Crossley J.A
        • et al.
        Early pregnancy levels of pregnancy-associated plasma protein A and the risk of intrauterine growth restriction, premature birth, preeclampsia, and stillbirth.
        J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002; 87: 1762-1767
        • Toop K
        • Klopper A
        Concentration of pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A) in patients with pre-eclamptic toxaemia.
        Placenta Suppl. 1981; 3: 167-173
        • Hughes G
        • Bischof P
        • Wilson G
        • et al.
        Tests of fetal wellbeing in the third trimester of pregnancy.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1980; 87: 650-656
        • Perkins A.V
        • Linton E.A
        • Eben F
        • et al.
        Corticotrophin-releasing hormone and corticotrophin-releasing hormone binding protein in normal and pre-eclamptic human pregnancies.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1995; 102: 118-122
        • Leung T.N
        • Chung T.K
        • Madsen G
        • et al.
        Analysis of mid-trimester corticotrophin-releasing hormone and alpha-fetoprotein concentrations for predicting pre-eclampsia.
        Hum Reprod. 2000; 15: 1813-1818
        • Bartha J.L
        • Romero-Carmona R
        • Escobar-Llompart M
        • et al.
        The relationships between leptin and inflammatory cytokines in women with pre-eclampsia.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2001; 108: 1272-1276
        • Anato V
        • Garmendia J.V
        • Bianco N.E
        • et al.
        Serum leptin levels in different types of hypertension during pregnancy.
        Res Commun Mol Pathol Pharmacol. 2000; 108: 147-153
        • Laml T
        • Preyer O
        • Hartmann B.W
        • et al.
        Decreased maternal serum leptin in pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia.
        J Soc Gynecol Investig. 2001; 8: 89-93
        • Anim-Nyame N
        • Sooranna S.R
        • Steer P.J
        • et al.
        Longitudinal analysis of maternal plasma leptin concentrations during normal pregnancy and pre-eclampsia.
        Hum Reprod. 2000; 15: 2033-2036
        • Chappell L.C
        • Seed P.T
        • Briley A
        • et al.
        A longitudinal study of biochemical variables in women at risk of preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002; 18: 127-136
        • Saleh A.A
        • Bottoms S.F
        • Farrag A.M
        • et al.
        Markers for endothelial injury, clotting and platelet activation in preeclampsia.
        Arch Gynecol Obstet. 1992; 251: 105-110
        • Ballegeer V
        • Spitz B
        • Kieckens L
        • et al.
        Predictive value of increased plasma levels of fibronectin in gestational hypertension.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989; 161: 432-436
        • Lazarchik J
        • Stubbs T.M
        • Romein L
        • et al.
        Predictive value of fibronectin levels in normotensive gravid women destined to become preeclamptic.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1986; 154: 1050-1052
        • Halligan A
        • Bonnar J
        • Sheppard B
        • et al.
        Haemostatic, fibrinolytic and endothelial variables in normal pregnancies and pre-eclampsia.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1994; 101: 488-492
        • Ostlund E
        • Hansson L.O
        • Bremme K
        Fibronectin is a marker for organ involvement and may reflect the severity of preeclampsia.
        Hypertens Pregnancy. 2001; 20: 79-87
        • Lockwood C.J
        • Peters J.H
        Increased plasma levels of ED1 + cellular fibronectin precede the clinical signs of preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990; 162: 358-362
        • Gredmark T
        • Bergman B
        • Hellstrom L
        Total fibronectin in maternal plasma as a predictor of preeclampsia.
        Gynecol Obstet Invest. 1999; 47: 89-94
        • Florijn K.W
        • Derkx F.H
        • Visser W
        • et al.
        Plasma immunoreactive endothelin-1 in pregnant women with and without pre-eclampsia.
        J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1991; 17: S446-S448
      4. Singh HJ, Rahman A, Larmie ET, et al. Endothelin-1 in feto-placental tissues from normotensive pregnant women and women with pre-eclampsia 2001;80(2):99–103.

        • Shaarawy M
        • Abdel-Magid A.M
        Plasma endothelin-1 and mean arterial pressure in the prediction of pre-eclampsia.
        Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2000; 68: 105-111
        • Hata T
        • Miyazaki K
        • Matsui K
        Decreased circulating adrenomedullin in pre-eclampsia.
        Lancet. 1997; 350: 1600
        • Tyurin V.A
        • Liu S.-X
        • Tyurina Y.Y
        • et al.
        Elevated levels of S-nitrosoalbumin in preeclampsia plasma.
        Circ Res. 2001; 88: 1210-1215
        • Shaamash A.H
        • Elsnosy E.D
        • Makhlouf A.M
        • et al.
        Maternal and fetal serum nitric oxide (NO) concentrations in normal pregnancy, pre-eclampsia and eclampsia.
        Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2000; 68: 207-214
        • Diedrich F
        • Renner A
        • Rath W
        • et al.
        Lipid and hydroperoxides and free radical scavenging enzyme activities in preeclampsia and HELLP (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelet count) syndrome: no evidence for circulating primary products of lipid peroxidation.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 185: 166-172
        • Raijmakers M.T.M
        • Zusterzeel P.L.M
        • Roes E.M
        • et al.
        Oxidized and free whole blood thiols in preeclampsia.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 97: 272-276
        • Sanchez S.E
        • Zhang C
        • Malinow M.R
        • et al.
        Plasma folate, vitamin B12, and homocyst(e)ine concentrations in preeclamptic and normotensive Peruvian women.
        Am J Epidemiol. 2001; 153: 474-480
        • Horkko S
        • Miller E
        • Dudl E
        • et al.
        Antiphospholipid antibodies are directed against epitopes of oxidized phospholipids. Recognition of cardiolipin by monoclonal antibodies to epitopes of oxidized low density lipoproteins.
        J Clin Invest. 1996; 98: 815-825
        • Palan P.R
        • Mikhail M.S
        • Romney S.L
        Placental and serum levels of carotenoids in preeclampsia.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 98: 459-462
        • Zhang C
        • Williams M.A
        • Sanchez S.E
        • et al.
        Plasma concentrations of carotenoids, retinal, and tocopherols in preeclamptic and normotensive pregnant women.
        Am J Epidemiol. 2001; 153: 572-580
        • Cotter A.M
        • Molloy A.M
        • Scott J.M
        • et al.
        Elevated plasma homocysteine in early pregnancy: a risk factor for the development of severe preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 185: 781-785
        • Hietala R
        • Turpeinen U
        • Laatikainen T
        Serum homocysteine at 16 weeks and subsequent preeclampsia.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 97: 527-529
        • Clausen T
        • Djurovic S
        • Henriksen T
        Dyslipidemia in early second trimester is mainly a feature of women with early onset pre-eclampsia.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2001; 108: 1081-1087
        • Branch D.E
        • Porter T.F
        • Rittenhouse L
        • et al.
        Antiphospholipid antibodies in women at risk for preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 184: 825-834
        • Ahmed Y
        • van Iddekinge B
        • Paul C
        • et al.
        Retrospective analysis of platelet numbers and volumes in normal pregnancy and pre-eclampsia.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1993; 100: 216-220
        • Hutt R
        • Ogunniyi S.O
        • Sullivan M.H
        • et al.
        Increased platelet volume and aggregation precede the onset of preeclampsia.
        Obstet Gynecol. 1994; 83: 146-149
        • Walker J.J
        • Cameron A.D
        • Bjornsson S
        • et al.
        Can platelet volume predict progressive hypertensive disease in pregnancy?.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989; 161: 676-679
        • Fitzgerald D.J
        • Entman S.S
        • Mulloy K
        • et al.
        Decreased prostacyclin biosynthesis preceding the clinical manifestation of pregnancy-induced hypertension.
        Circulation. 1987; 75: 956-963
        • Mills J.L
        • DerSimonian R
        • Raymond E
        • et al.
        Prostacyclin and thromboxane changes predating clinical onset of preeclampsia: a multicenter prospective study.
        JAMA. 1999; 282: 356-362
        • Tempfer C
        • Hefler L
        • Zeisler H
        • et al.
        Synovial phospholipase A2 serum levels in pregnancy and preeclampsia.
        Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2001; 80: 27-29
        • Serin Y.S
        • Ozcelik B
        • Bapbuo M
        • et al.
        Predictive value of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) in preeclampsia.
        Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2002; 100: 143-145
        • Williams M.A
        • Farrand A
        • Mittendorf R
        • et al.
        Maternal second trimester serum tumor necrosis factor-alpha-soluble receptor p55 (sTNFp55) and subsequent risk of preeclampsia.
        Am J Epidemiol. 1999; 149: 323-329
        • Eneroth E
        • Remberger M
        • Vahlne A
        • et al.
        Increased serum concentrations of interleukin-2 receptor in the first trimester in women who later developed severe preeclampsia.
        Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1998; 77: 591-593
        • Harirah H
        • Donia S.E
        • Hsu C.-D
        Serum soluble Fas in the syndrome of hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 98: 295-298
        • Hsu C.-D
        • Harirah H
        • Basherra H
        • et al.
        Serum soluble Fas levels in preeclampsia.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 97: 530-532
        • Kuntz T.B
        • Christensen R.D
        • Stegner J
        • et al.
        Fas and Fas ligand expression in maternal blood and in umbilical cord blood in preeclampsia.
        Pediatr Res. 2001; 50: 743-749
        • Savvidou M.D
        • Lees C.C
        • Parra M
        • et al.
        Levels of C-reactive protein in pregnant women who subsequently develop pre-eclampsia.
        BJOG. 2002; 109: 297-301
        • Benian A
        • Madazli R
        • Aksu F
        • et al.
        Plasma and placental levels of interleukin-10, transforming growth factor-β1, and epithelial-cadherin in preeclampsia.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2002; 100: 327-331
        • Caniggia I
        • Grisaru-Gravnosky S
        • Kuliszewsky M
        • et al.
        Inhibition of TGF-beta 3 restores the invasive capability of extravillous trophoblasts in preeclamptic pregnancies.
        J Clin Invest. 1999; 103: 1641-1650
        • Lyall F
        • Simpson H
        • Bulmer J.N
        • et al.
        Transforming growth factor-β expression in human placenta and placental bed in third trimester normal pregnancy, preeclampsia, and fetal growth restriction.
        Am J Pathol. 2001; 159: 1827-1838
        • Shaarawy M
        • El Meleigy M
        • Rasheed K
        Maternal serum transforming growth factor beta-2 in preeclampsia and eclampsia, a potential biomarker for the assessment of disease severity and fetal outcome.
        J Soc Gynecol Investig. 2001; 8: 27-31
        • Djurovic S
        • Schjetlein R
        • Wisloff F
        • et al.
        Plasma concentrations of Lp(a) lipoprotein and TGF-beta 1 is altered in preeclampsia.
        Clin Genet. 1997; 52: 371-376
        • Huber A
        • Hefler L
        • Tempfer C
        • et al.
        Transforming growth factor-beta 1 serum levels in pregnancy and pre-eclampsia.
        Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2002; 81: 168-171
        • He S
        • Bremme K
        • Blomback M
        Increased blood flow resistance in placental circulation and levels of plasminogen activator inhibitors types 1 and 2 in severe preeclampsia.
        Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 1995; 6: 703-708
        • Reith A
        • Booth N.A
        • Moore N.R
        • et al.
        Plasminogen activitor inhibitors (PAI-1 and PAI-2) in normal pregnancies, pre-eclampsia and hyatidiform mole.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1993; 100: 370-374
        • Estelles A
        • Gilabert J
        • Grancha S
        • et al.
        Abnormal expression of type 1 plasminogen activator inhibitor and tissue factor in severe preeclampsia.
        Thromb Haemost. 1998; 79: 500-508
        • Grancha S
        • Estelles A
        • Gilabert J
        • et al.
        Decreased expression of PAI-2 mRNA and protein in pregnancies complicated with intrauterine fetal growth retardation.
        Thromb Haemost. 1996; 76: 761-767
        • Adachi T
        • Nakabayashi M
        • Sakura M
        • et al.
        Involvement of fibrinolytic factors in mid trimester amniotic fluid with development of severe early-onset preeclampsia.
        Semin Thromb Hemost. 1999; 25: 447-450
        • Cadroy Y
        • Grandjean H
        • Pichon J
        • et al.
        Evaluation of six markers of haemostatic system in normal pregnancy and pregnancy complicated by hypertension or pre-eclampsia.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1993; 100: 416-420
        • Lim K.H
        • Friedman S.A
        • Ecker J.L
        • et al.
        The clinical utility of serum uric acid measurements in hypertensive disease of pregnancy.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998; 178: 1067-1071
        • Williams K.P
        • Galerneau F
        The role of serum uric acid as a prognostic indicator of the severity of maternal and fetal complications in hypertensive pregnancies.
        J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2002; 24: 628-632
        • Izumi A
        • Minakami H
        • Kuwata T
        • et al.
        Calcium-to-creatinine ratio in spot urine samples in early pregnancy and its relation to the development of preeclampsia.
        Metabolism. 1997; 46: 1107-1108
        • Kyle P.M
        • Campbell S
        • Buckley D
        • et al.
        A comparison of the inactive urinary kallikrein:creatinine ratio and angiotensin sensitivity test for the prediction of pre-eclampsia.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1996; 103: 981-987
        • Millar J.G
        • Campbell S.K
        • Albano J.D
        • et al.
        Early prediction of pre-eclampsia by measurement of kallikrein and creatinine on a random urine sample.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1996; 103: 421-426
        • Anim-Nyame N
        • Sooranna S.R
        • Jones J
        • et al.
        Biochemical markers of maternal bone turnover are elevated in pre-eclampsia.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2001; 108: 258-262
        • Yamamoto H
        • Lambert-Messerlian G.M
        • Silver H.M
        • et al.
        Maternal serum levels of type I and type III procollagen peptides in pre-eclamptic pregnancy.
        J Matern Fetal Med. 2001; 10: 40-43
        • Innes K.E
        • Wimsatt J.H
        • McDuffie R
        Relative glucose tolerance and subsequent development of hypertension in pregnancy.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 97: 905-910
        • Solomon C.G
        • Graves S.W
        • Greene M.F
        • et al.
        Glucose intolerance as a predictor of hypertension in pregnancy.
        Hypertension. 1994; 23: 717-721
        • Solomon C.G
        • Carroll J.S
        • Okamura K
        • et al.
        Higher cholesterol and insulin levels in pregnancy are associated with increased risk for pregnancy-induced hypetenstion.
        Am J Hypertens. 1999; 12: 276-282
        • Sowers J.R
        • Saleh A.A
        • Sokol R.J
        Hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance are associated with preeclampsia in African-Americans.
        Am J Hypertens. 1995; 8: 1-4
        • Wolf M
        • Sandler L
        • Muñoz K
        • et al.
        First trimester insulin resistance and subsequent preeclampsia: a prospective study.
        J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002; 87: 1563-1568
        • Bretelle F
        • Sabatier F
        • Blann A
        • et al.
        Maternal endothelial soluble cell adhesion molecules with isolated small for gestational age fetuses: comparison with pre-eclampsia.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2001; 108: 1277-1282
        • Sasaki H
        • Roberts J
        • Lykins D
        • et al.
        Novel chemiluminescence assay for serum periostin levels in women with preeclampsia and normotensive pregnant women.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002; 186: 103-108
        • Baviera G
        • D'Anna R
        • Corrado F
        • et al.
        ICAM-1 in maternal serum and amniotic fluid as an early marker of preeclampsia and IUGR.
        J Reprod Med. 2002; 47: 191-193
        • Clausen T
        • Djurovic S
        • Brosstad F.R
        • et al.
        Altered circulation levels of adhesion molecules at 18 weeks' gestation among women with eventual preeclampsia: indicators of disturbed placentation in absence of evidence of endothelial dysfunction?.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000; 182: 321-325
        • Tziotis J
        • Malamitsi-Puchner A
        • Vlachos G
        • et al.
        Adhesion molecules expression in the placental bed of pregnancies with pre-eclampsia.
        BJOG. 2002; 109: 197-201
        • Bosio P.M
        • Cannon S
        • McKenna P.J
        • et al.
        Plasma P-selectin is elevated in the first trimester in women who subsequently develop pre-eclampsia.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2001; 108: 709-715
        • Hayman R
        • Brockelsby J
        • Kenny L
        • et al.
        Preeclampsia: the endothelium, circulating factor(s) and vascular endothelial growth factor.
        J Soc Gynecol Investig. 1999; 6: 3-10
        • Bosio P.M
        • Wheeler T
        • Anthony F
        • et al.
        Maternal plasma vascular endothelial growth factor concentrations in normal and hypertensive pregnancies and their relationship to peripheral vascular resistance.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 184: 146-152
        • Jelkmann W
        Pitfalls in the measurement of circulating vascular endothelial growth factor.
        Clin Chem. 2001; 47: 617-623
        • Livingston J.C
        • Haddad B
        • Gorski L.A
        • et al.
        Placenta growth factor is not an early marker for the development of severe preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 184: 18-20
        • Reuvekamp A
        • Velsing-Aarts F.V
        • Poulina I.E
        • et al.
        Selective deficit of angiogenic growth factors characterizes pregnancies complicated by pre-eclampsia.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1999; 106: 1019-1022
        • Torry D.S
        • Wang H.S
        • Wang T.H
        • et al.
        Preeclampsia is associated with reduced serum levels of placenta growth factor.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998; 179: 1539-1544
        • Su Y.N
        • Lee C.N
        • Cheng W.F
        • et al.
        Decreased maternal serum placenta growth factor in early second trimester and preeclampsia.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 97: 898-904
        • Tidwell S.C
        • Ho H.-N
        • Chiu W.-H
        • et al.
        Low maternal serum levels of placenta growth factor as an antecedent of clinical preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 184: 1267-1272
        • Tjoa M.L
        • Van Vugt J.M.G
        • Mulders M.A.M
        • et al.
        Plasma placenta growth factor levels in midtrimester pregnancies.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 98: 600-607
        • Shore V.H
        • Wang T.H
        • Wang C.L
        • et al.
        Vascular endothelial growth factor and their receptors in isolated human trophoblast.
        Placenta. 1997; 18: 657-665
        • Giudice L.C
        • Martina N.A
        • Crystal R.A
        • et al.
        Insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 at the maternal-fetal interface and insulin-like growth factor-I, insulin-like growth factor-II, and insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 in the circulation of women with severe preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997; 176: 751-758
        • Wang H.-S
        • Lee J.-D
        • Cheng B.-J
        • et al.
        Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 1 and insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 3 in pre-eclampsia.
        Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1996; 103: 654-659
        • Kajantie E
        • Hytinantti T
        • Koistinen R
        • et al.
        Markers of type I and type III collagen turnover, insulin-like growth factors, and their binding proteins in cord plasma of small premature infants: relationships with fetal growth, gestational age, preeclampsia, and antenatal glucocorticoid treatment.
        Pediatr Res. 2001; 49: 481-489
        • Vatten L.J
        • Odegård R.A
        • Nilsen S.T
        • et al.
        Relationship of insulin-like growth factor-I and insulin-like growth factor binding proteins in umbilical cord plasma to preeclampsia and infant birth weight.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2002; 99: 85-90
        • Gratton R.J
        • Asano H
        • Han V.K.M
        The regional expression of insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II) and insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 (IGFBP-1) in the placentae of women with pre-eclampsia.
        Placenta. 2002; 23: 303-310
        • Anim-Nyame N
        • Hills F.A
        • Sooranna S.R
        • et al.
        A longitudinal study of maternal plasma insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 concentrations during normal pregnancy and pregnancies complicated by pre-eclampsia.
        Hum Reprod. 2000; 15: 2215-2219
        • Bhatia S
        • Faessen G.H
        • Carland G
        • et al.
        A longitudinal analysis of maternal serum insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and total and non-phosphorylated IGF-binding protein-1 in human pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth restriction.
        J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002; 87: 1864-1870
        • Grobman W.A
        • Kazer R.R
        Serum insulin, insulin-like growth factor-I, and insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 in women who develop preeclampsia.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 97: 521-526
        • Hietala R
        • Pohja-Nylander P
        • Rutanen E.-M
        • et al.
        Serum insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 at 16 weeks and subsequent preeclampsia.
        Obstet Gynecol. 2000; 95: 185-189
        • De Groot C.J.M
        • O'Brien T.J
        • Taylor R.N
        Biochemical evidence of impaired trophoblast invasion of decidual stroma in women destined to have preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996; 175: 24-29
        • Ishihara N
        • Matsuo H
        • Murakoshi H
        • et al.
        Increased apoptosis in the syncytiotrophoblast in human term placentas complicated by either preeclampsia or intrauterine growth retardation.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002; 186: 158-166
        • Leung D.N
        • Smith S.S
        • To K.F
        • et al.
        Increased placental apoptosis in pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 184: 1249-1250
        • Redline R.W
        • Patterson P
        Pre-eclampsia is associated with an excess proliferative immature intermediate trophoblast.
        Hum Pathol. 1995; 26: 594-600
        • Holzgreve W
        • Ghezzi F
        • Di Naro E
        • et al.
        Disturbed feto-maternal cell traffic in preeclampsia.
        Obstet Gynecol. 1998; 91: 669-672
        • Jansen M.W.J.C
        • Korver-Hakkennes K
        • van Leenen D
        • et al.
        Significantly higher number of fetal cells in the maternal circulation of women with pre-eclampsia.
        Prenat Diagn. 2001; 21: 1022-1026
        • Zhong X.Y
        • Laivuori H
        • Livingston J.C
        • et al.
        Elevation of both maternal and fetal extracellular circulating deoxyribonucleic acid concentrations in the plasma of pregnant women with preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 184: 414-419
        • Holzgreve W
        • Chun Li J
        • Steinborn A
        • et al.
        Elevation in erythroblast count in maternal blood before the onset of preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001; 184: 165-168
        • Pridjian G
        • Puschett J.B
        Preeclampsia.
        Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2002; 57: 619-640
        • Ward K
        • Hata A
        • Jeunemaitre X
        • et al.
        A molecular variant of angiotensinogen associated with preeclampsia.
        Nat Genet. 1993; 4: 59-61
        • Arngrimsson R
        • Purandare S
        • Conner M
        • et al.
        Angiotensinogen. A candidate gene involved in preeclampsia?.
        Nat Genet. 1993; 4: 114-115
        • Kupferminc M.J
        • Eldor A
        • Steinman N
        • et al.
        Increased frequency of genetic thrombophilia in women with complications of pregnancy.
        N Engl J Med. 1999; 340: 9-13
        • Dizon-Townson D.S
        • Nelson L.M
        • Easton K
        • et al.
        The factor V Leiden mutation may predispose women to severe preeclampsia.
        Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996; 175: 902-905
        • Grandone E
        • Margaglione M
        • Collaizzo D
        • et al.
        Factor V Leiden, C > T MTHFR polymorphism and genetic susceptibility to preeclampsia.
        Thromb Haemost. 1997; 77: 1052-1054
        • O'Shaughnessy K.M
        • Fu B
        • Ferraro F
        • et al.
        Factor V Leiden and thermolatile methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene variants in an East Anglican preeclampsia cohort.
        Hypertension. 1999; 33: 1338-1341