The term viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF) refers to an acute systemic illness classically involving fever, a constellation
of initially nonspecific signs and symptoms, and a propensity for bleeding and shock.
Capillary leakage, impaired hemostasis, and in some cases, impaired cardiac inotropy
are the pathophysiologic hallmarks. VHFs may be caused by more than 25 different viruses
from four families: Flaviviridae, Arenaviridae, Bunyaviridae, and Filoviridae (Table 1). VHFs of various etiologies exist worldwide, although because these diseases are
primarily zoonotic, the distribution of any given virus is generally restricted by
the distribution of its natural reservoir or arthropod vector. In most cases, human
infection is rare. However, increased international travel and the high communicability,
case-fatality ratios, and potential for nosocomial amplification often associated
with the VHFs make them of concern even outside areas where they are endemic. Fears
over importations usually focus on returning travelers, although importation of infected
reservoirs or vectors with subsequent transmission to humans has occasionally occurred.
Recent concern about bioterrorism has made intentional release of these agents an
issue as well.
Table 1Principal viruses causing hemorrhage fevers
| Virus | Disease | Geographic distribution | Principal reservoir/vector | Annual cases | Case: Infection ratio | Human-to-human transmissibility |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Flaviviridae | ||||||
| Yellow fever | Yellow fever | Africa, South America | Monkey/mosquito (Aedes aegypti, other Aedes and Haemagogus spp.) | 5000–200,000 | 1:2–20 | No |
| Dengue | Dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever | Tropics and subtropics worldwide | Human/mosquito (Aedes aegypti) | Dengue fever: 100 million, Dengue hemorrhagic fever: 100,000–200,000 | 1:10–100 depending on age, previous infection, genetic background, and infecting serotype | No |
| Kyasanur Forest disease | Kyasanur Forest disease | Karnataka state, India | Vertebrate (rodents, bats, birds, monkeys, others)/tick (Ixodes) | 400–500 | Unknown | Not reported, but laboratory infections have occurred |
| Omsk hemorrhagic fever | Omsk hemorrhagic fever | Western Siberia | Rodent/tick (Ixodes), maintenance cycle incompletely understood | 100–200 | Unknown | Not reported |
| Arenaviridae | ||||||
| Junin | Argentine hemorrhagic fever | Argentine pampas | Rodent (the “corn mouse” or Calomys musculinus) | 100–200 | 1:1.5 | Low |
| Machupo | Bolivian hemorrhagic fever | Beni department, Bolivia | Rodent (the “large vesper mouse” or Calomys callosus) | <50 | 1:1.5 | Low |
| Guanarito | Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever | Portuguesa state, Venezuela | Rodent (the “cane mouse” or Zygodontomys brevicauda) | <50 | 1:1.5 | Low |
| Sabiá | Proposed name: Brazilian hemorrhagic fever | Rural area near Sao Paulo, Brazil? | Unknown (Rodent?) | 1:1.5 | Low? | |
| Lassa | Lassa fever | West Africa | Rodent (the “multimammate rat” or Mastomys spp.) | 100,000–300,000 | 1:5–10 | Moderate |
| Bunyaviridae | ||||||
| Hantaan, Seoul, Puumala, Dobrava, others | Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome | Hantaan: northeast Asia; Seoul: urban areas world- wide; Puumala and Dobrava: Europe | Rodent (Hantaan: the “striped field mouse” or Apodemus agrarius; Seoul: the “Norway rat” or Rattus norwegicus; Puumala: the “bank vole” or Clethrionomys glareolus; Dobrava: the “yellow-necked field mouse” or Apodemus flavicollis) | 50,000–150,000 | Hantaan: 1:1.5 Others: 1:20 | No |
| Sin Nombre, Andes, Laguna Negra, others | Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome | Sin Nombre: North America; Andes and Laguna Negra: South America | Rodents (Sin Nombre: the “deer mouse” or Perimyscus maniculatus; Andes: the “long-tailed pygmy rice-rat” or Oligorysomys longicaudatus; Laguna Negra: the “vesper mouse” or Calomys laucha) | 10–50 | 1:1 | No
d
Epidemiologic evidence strongly supports the occurrence of nosocomial transmission
of Andes virus during an outbreak in Argentina in 1996 [1,2]. This appears to be an
isolated incident, as reviews of previously occurring outbreaks in the United States
and elsewhere have not supported a conclusion of inter-human transmission of non-Andes
hantaviruses.
|
| Rift Valley fever | Rift Valley fever | Sub-Saharan Africa | Domestic livestock/mosquitoes (Aedes and others) | 100–100,000 | 1:100 | No |
| Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever | Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever | Africa, Middle East, Balkans, southern Russia, western China | Wild and domestic vertebrates/tick (Hyalomma spp.) | ∼100 | 1:1–2 | High |
| Filoviridae | ||||||
| Ebola | Ebola hemorrhagic fever | Sub-Saharan Africa, Philippines? | Unknown |
e
Although some endemic transmission of the filoviruses may occur, these diseases have
usually been recognized only in epidemic form. Ebola hemorrhagic fever epidemics typically
involve <500 people, and Marburg <100. Epidemics have been recognized with increasing
frequency during the period 1994–2002.
|
1:1 | High |
| Marburg | Marburg hemorrhagic fever | Sub-Saharan Africa | Unknown |
e
Although some endemic transmission of the filoviruses may occur, these diseases have
usually been recognized only in epidemic form. Ebola hemorrhagic fever epidemics typically
involve <500 people, and Marburg <100. Epidemics have been recognized with increasing
frequency during the period 1994–2002.
|
1:1 | High |
a Based on estimates from the World Health Organization. Significant underreporting
occurs. Incidence may fluctuate widely depending on epidemic activity.
b First discovered in 1990. Only 3 cases (1 fatal) of Sabiá virus infection have been
noted, 2 of them related to laboratory infection. Disease from this virus is presumed
to be similar to the other South American hemorrhagic fevers.
c Whereas virtually all infections due to the North American hantavirus Sin Nombre virus
appear to be symptomatic, serosurveys have suggested asymptomatic transmission of
some hantaviruses in South America.
d Epidemiologic evidence strongly supports the occurrence of nosocomial transmission
of Andes virus during an outbreak in Argentina in 1996
1
,
2
. This appears to be an isolated incident, as reviews of previously occurring outbreaks
in the United States and elsewhere have not supported a conclusion of inter-human
transmission of non-Andes hantaviruses.e Although some endemic transmission of the filoviruses may occur, these diseases have
usually been recognized only in epidemic form. Ebola hemorrhagic fever epidemics typically
involve <500 people, and Marburg <100. Epidemics have been recognized with increasing
frequency during the period 1994–2002.
To read this article in full you will need to make a payment
Purchase one-time access:
Academic & Personal: 24 hour online accessCorporate R&D Professionals: 24 hour online accessOne-time access price info
- For academic or personal research use, select 'Academic and Personal'
- For corporate R&D use, select 'Corporate R&D Professionals'
Subscribers receive full online access to your subscription and archive of back issues up to and including 2002.
Content published before 2002 is available via pay-per-view purchase only.
Subscribe:
Subscribe to Clinics in Laboratory MedicineAlready a print subscriber? Claim online access
Already an online subscriber? Sign in
Register: Create an account
Institutional Access: Sign in to ScienceDirect
References
- Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome outbreak in Argentina: Molecular evidence for person-to-person transmission of Andes virus.Virology. 1998; 241: 323-330
- An unusual hantavirus outbreak in southern Argentina: Person-to-person transmission?.Emerg Infect Dis. 1997; 3: 171-174
- Fatal illnesses associated with a new World Arenavirus, California, 1999–2000.MMWR. 2000; 49: 709-711
- First evidence of natural vertical transmission of yellow fever virus in Aedes aegypti, its epidemic vector.Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1997; 91: 533-535
- Yellow fever. A decade of resurgence.JAMA. 1996; 276: 1157-1162
- Yellow fever, 1996–1997,.Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 1998; 46: 354-359
- Dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever.Clin Microbiol Rev. 1998; 11: 480-486
- First record in America of Aedes albopictus naturally infected with dengue virus during the 1995 outbreak at Reynosa, Mexico.Med Vet Entomol. 1997; 11: 305-309
World Health Organization Report on Global Surveillance of Epidemic-Prone Infectious Diseases. Dengue and Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever. Communicable Disease Surveillance and Response (CSR) 2000. p. 1–7.
- Global situation of dengue and dengue haemorrhagic fever, an its emergence in the Americas.World Health Stat Q. 1997; 50: 161-169
- Dengue fever at the U.S. Mexico border, 1995–96.MMWR. 1996; 45: 841-844
- Underdiagnosis of dengue–Laredo Texas, 1999.MMWR. 2001; 50: 57-59
- Isolation of Machupo virus from wild rodent Calomys callosus.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1966; 15: 103-106
- Field studies on the epidemiology of Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever—implication of the cotton rat Sigmodon alstoni as the probable rodent reservoir.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1993; 49: 227-235
- Phylogenetic analysis of the Arenaviridae: patterns of virus evolution and evidence for cospeciation between arenaviruses and their rodent hosts.Mol Phylogenet Evol. 1997; 8: 301-316
- Prevalence of infection with Junin virus in rodent populations in the epidemic area of Argentine hemorrhagic fever.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1994; 51: 554-562
- A longitudinal study of Junin virus activity in the rodent reservoir of Argentine hemorrhagic fever.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1992; 47: 749-763
- Effect of persistent infection with Junín virus on growth and reproduction of its natural reservoir. Calomysmusculinus.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1987; 37: 663-669
- Infection of wild and laboratory animals with Machupo and Latino viruses.Bull World Health Organ. 1975; 52: 493-499
- Experimental infection of the cane mouse Zygodontomys brevicauda (family Muridae) with Guanarito virus (Arenaviridae), the etiologic agent of Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever.J Infect Dis. 1999; 180: 966-969
- Aerosol infection of rhesus macaques with Junin virus.Intervirology. 1992; 33: 23-31
- Progressive extension of the endemic area and changing incidence of Argentine hemorrhagic fever.Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl). 1986; 175: 149-152
- New findings on Junin virus infection in rodents inside and outside the endemic area of hemorrhagic fever in Argentina.Medicina (B Aires). 1991; 51: 519-523
- Junin virus activity in rodents from endemic and nonendemic loci in central Argentina.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1991; 44: 589-597
- Bolivian hemorrhagic fever—El Beni Department, Bolivia, 1994.MMWR. 1994; 43: 942-945
- Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever: clinical and epidemiological studies of 165 cases.Clin Infect Dis. 1998; 26: 308-313
- Natural rodent host associations of Guanarito and Pirital viruses (family arenaviridae) in central Venezuela.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1999; 61: 325-330
- Epidemiology of Machupo virus infection.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1964; 14: 808-813
- Hemorrhagic fever in Cochabamba, Bolivia, 1971.Am J Epidemiol. 1974; 99: 425-433
- Management of a Sabiá virus-infected patient in a US hospital.Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1999; 20: 176-182
- New Arenavirus isolated in Brazil.Lancet. 1994; 343: 391-392
- Laboratory-acquired Sabia virus infection.N Engl J Med. 1995; 333: 1716
- Hemorrhagic fevers of Southeast Asia and South America: a comparative appraisal.Prog Med Virol. 1967; 9: 105-158
- Epidemiology of Machupo virus infection.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1965; 14: 813-816
- Association of intraspecific wounding with hantaviral infection in wild rats (Rattus norvegicus).Epidemiol Infect. 1988; 101: 459-472
- Patterns of association with host and habitat: antibody reactive with Sin Nombre virus in small mammals in the major biotic communities of the southwestern United States.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1997; 56: 273-284
- Epidemiological studies of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome: analysis of risk factors and mode of transmission.J Infect Dis. 1985; 152: 137-144
- Hantavirus infection in the United States: epizootiology and epidemiology.Rev Infect Dis. 1990; 12: 449-457
- Observations on natural and laboratory infection of rodents with the etiologic agent of Korean hemorrhagic fever.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1981; 30: 477-482
- HFRS after a wild rodent bite in the haute-Savoie and a risk of exposure to Hantaan-like virus in a Paris laboratory.Lancet. 1984; 1: 676-677
- Control of laboratory acquired hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) in Japan.Lab Anim Sci. 1987; 37: 431-436
- Spectrum of hantavirus infection: hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome.Annu Rev Med. 1999; 50: 531-545
- Rodent-borne emerging viral zoonosis. Hemorrhagic fevers and hantavirus infections in South America.Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2000; 14: 167-184
- Hantaviruses: A global disease problem.Emerg Infect Dis. 1997; 3: 95-104
- Serologic and genetic identification of Peromyscus maniculatus as the primary rodent reservoir for a new hantavirus in the southwestern United States.J Infect Dis. 1994; 169: 1271-1280
- Long-term studies of hantavirus reservoir populations in the southwestern United States: a synthesis.Emerg Infect Dis. 1999; 5: 135-142
- Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome associated with entering or cleaning rarely used, rodent-infested structures.J Infect Dis. 1995; 172: 1166
- Hantavirus reservoir hosts associated with peridomestic habitats in Argentina.Emerg Infect Dis. 1999; 5: 792-797
- A household-based, case-control study of environmental factors associated with hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in the southwestern United States.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1995; 52: 393-397
- Assessment of occupational risk for hantavirus infection in Arizona and New Mexico.J Occup Environ Med. 1997; 39: 463-467
- Short report: decrease in seroprevalence of antibodies to hantavirus in rodents from 1993–1994 hantavirus pulmonary syndrome case sites.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998; 58: 737-738
- Intraspecific transmission of Hantaan virus, etiologic agent of Korean hemorrhagic fever, in the rodent Apodemus agrarius.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1981; 30: 1106-1112
- Climatic and environmental patterns associated with hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, four corners region, United States.Emerg Infect Dis. 1999; 5: 87-94
- Outbreak of hantavirus infection in the Four Corners region of the United States in the wake of the 1997–1998 El Nino-Southern Oscillation.J Infect Dis. 2000; 181: 1569-1573
- Remote sensing and geographic information systems: Charting sin nombre virus infections in deer mice.Emerg Infect Dis. 2000; 6: 248-258
- Seasonal variation in prevalence of antibody to hantaviruses in rodents from southern Argentina.Trop Med Int Health. 2001; 6: 811-816
- A survey of hantavirus antibody in small-mammal populations in selected United States National Parks.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998; 58: 525-532
- Relationships of deer mouse movement, vegetative structure, and prevalence of infection with Sin Nombre virus.J Wildl Dis. 1999; 35: 311-318
- Isolation of Hantaan-related virus from Brazilian rats and serologic evidence of its widespread distribution in South America.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1985; 34: 810-815
- Serological and virological evidence of a Hantaan virus-related enzootic in the United States.J Infect Dis. 1985; 152: 126-126
- Myocardial damage in viral hemorrhagic fevers.Am Heart J. 1992; 104: 1385-1391
- Argentine hemorrhagic fever. Alterations of the complement system and anti-Junı́n-virus humoral response.N Engl J Med. 1978; 299: 216-221
- Yellow fever.in: Guerrant R.L Walker D.H Weller P.F Tropical infectious diseases: principles, pathogens, and practice. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia1999: 1253-1264
- Lymphocyte subsets alteration in patients with argentine hemorrhagic fever.J Med Virol. 1989; 27: 160-163
- Humoral immune responses in the hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome.J Infect Dis. 2000; 182: 43-48
- Antibody-dependent enhancement of infection and the pathogenesis of viral disease.Clin Infect Dis. 1994; 19: 500-512
- Antibody-mediated enhancement of viral disease.Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2001; 260: 145-169
- The electrocardiogram in hemorrhagic fever.Am Heart J. 1954; 47: 218-240
- Yellow fever: A medically neglected disease.Rev Infect Dis. 1987; 9: 165-175
- Proteinuria, proteinaemia, and serum transaminase activity in 23 confirmed cases of yellow fever.Bull World Health Organ. 1970; 42: 95-102
- Clinical and epidemiological patterns of Argentine haemorrhagic fever.Bull World Health Organ. 1975; 52: 567-575
- Latin American hemorrhagic fever.Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1994; 8: 47-59
- Estudio neurológico de 120 casos de fiebre hemorrágica Argentina.Prensa Med Argent. 1969; 56: 605-614
- Early markers of blood coagulation and fibrinolysis activation in Argentine hemorrhagic fever.Thromb Haemost. 1995; 73: 368-373
- Coagulation studies in Argentine hemorrhagic fever.J Infect Dis. 1981; 143: 1-6
- Fiebre hemorragica Argentina (FHA) en la mujer embarazada.Medicina. 1990; 50: 443
- Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome: a clinical description of 17 patients with a newly recognized disease.N Engl J Med. 1994; 330: 949-955
- Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome—the first 100 US cases.J Infect Dis. 1996; 173: 1297-1303
- Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome is distinguishable from acute interstitial pneumonia.Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2000; 124: 1463-1466
- Clinical features that differentiate hantavirus pulmonary syndrome from three other acute respiratory illnesses.Clin Infect Dis. 1995; 21: 643-649
- Radiographic findings in 20 patients with Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome correlated with clinical outcome.Am J Roentgenol. 2002; 178: 159-163
- Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome—radiographic findings in 16 patients.Radiology. 1994; 191: 665-668
- Hantaviruses: an overview and radiographic correlation.Radiol Technol. 1999; 70: 373-377
- Pleural fluid characteristics in hantavirus pulmonary syndrome.Chest. 1997; 112: 1133-1136
- Cardiopulmonary manifestations of hantavirus pulmonary symptoms.Crit Care Med. 1996; 24: 252-258
- Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome—Chile, 1997.MMWR. 1997; 46: 949-951
- Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, renal insufficiency, and myositis associated with infection by Bayou hantavirus.Clin Infect Dis. 1996; 23: 495-500
- Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in Florida: association with the newly identified Black Creek Canal virus.Am J Med. 1996; 100: 46-48
- Fatal illness associated with a new hantavirus in Louisiana.J Med Virol. 1995; 46: 281-286
- Genetic diversity and epidemiology of hantaviruses in Argentina.J Infect Dis. 1998; 177: 529-538
- Retrospective detection of clinical infections caused by hantavirus in Argentina.Medicina–Buenos Aires. 1996; 56: 1-13
- Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in the United States: a pathological description of a disease caused by a new agent.Hum Pathol. 1995; 26: 110-120
- Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome.Lancet. 1996; 347: 739-741
- Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome: pathogenesis of an emerging infectious disease.Am J Pathol. 1995; 146: 552-579
- The protean manifestations of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. A retrospective review of 26 cases from Korea.Ann Intern Med. 1990; 113: 385-391
- Analysis of sequential physiologic derangements in epidemic hemorrhagic fever. With a commentary on management.Am J Med. 1954; 16: 690-709
- The clinical course of epidemic hemorrhagic fever.Am J Med. 1954; 16: 619-628
- Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome caused by the Seoul virus.Nephron. 1995; 71: 419-427
- A clinical study of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome caused by Seoul virus infection.Korean J Intern Med. 1989; 4: 130-135
- Coagulopathy in hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (Korean hemorrhagic fever).Rev Infect Dis. 1989; 11: S877-S883
- Magnetic resonance imaging of the kidney in hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome: its histopathologic correlation.Nephron. 1997; 76: 477-480
- Clinical study of Korean hemorrhagic fever.Korean Journal of Medicine. 1972; 15: 757-766
- Panhypopituitarism in the acute stage of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome: a case report.Arch Virol. 1990; 1: S95-S100
- Spontaneous rupture of the kidneys in hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome.Urologiia i Nefrologiia. 1990; 6: 50-53
- Infection with a rat-borne hantavirus in US residents is consistently associated with hypertensive renal disease.J Infect Dis. 1993; 167: 614-620
- The Hantaviruses, etiologic agents of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome: a possible cause of hypertension and chronic renal disease in the United States.Annu Rev Public Health. 1992; 13: 79-98
- Public health assessment of potential biological terrorism agents.Emerg Infect Dis. 2002; 8: 225-230
- Successful treatment of adults with severe Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.Crit Care Med. 1998; 26: 409-414
- Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome treated with inhaled nitric oxide.Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998; 17: 749-752
- Effect of glucocorticoid hormones on the status of the hypothalamo-hypophyseal-adrenal system and endocrine function of the pancreas in patients with hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome.Klinicheskaya Meditsina. 1990; 68: 86-89
- Hemodynamic response to high-dose methylprednisolone and mannitol in severe dengue-shock patients unresponsive to fluid replacement.Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1987; 18: 373-379
- A placebo-controlled clinical trial of prednisone in the treatment of early hemorrhagic fever.J Infect Dis. 1990; 162: 1213-1214
- Cortisone therapy of early epidemic hemorrhagic fever: a preliminary report.Ann Intern Med. 1955; 42: 839-851
- Failure of high-dose methylprednisolone in established dengue shock syndrome: a placebo-controlled, double-blind study.Pediatrics. 1993; 92: 111-115
- Treatment of a laboratory-acquired Sabia virus infection.N Engl J Med. 1995; 333: 294-296
- Antiviral treatment of Argentine hemorrhagic fever.Antiviral Res. 1994; 23: 23-31
- Treatment of Bolivian hemorrhagic fever with intravenous ribavirin.Clin Infect Dis. 1997; 24: 718-722
- Ribavirin prophylaxis and therapy for experimental argentine hemorrhagic fever.Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1988; 32: 1304-1309
- Prospective, double-blind, concurrent, placebo-controlled clinical trial of intravenous ribavirin therapy of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome.J Infect Dis. 1991; 164: 1119-1127
- Intravenous ribavirin for hantavirus pulmonary syndrome: safety and tolerance during 1 year of open-label experience. Ribavirin study group.Antivir Ther. 1999; 4: 211-219
- Importance of dose of neutralising antibodies in treatment of Argentine haemorrhagic fever with immune plasma.Lancet. 1984; ii: 255-256
- Efficacity of immune plasma in treatment of Argentine haemorrhagic fever and association between treatment and a late neurological syndrome.Lancet. 1979; ii: 1216-1217
- Sindrome neurologico tardio en enfermos de fiebre hemorrágica Argentina tratados con plasma immune.Medicina. 1985; 45: 615-620
- Aedes aegypti and Aedes aegypti-borne disease control in the 1990s: top down or bottom up.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1989; 40: 571-578
- Dengue vector control: present status and future prospects.Gaoxiong Yi Xue Ke Xue Za Zhi. 1994; 10: S102-S108
- Community involvement in the control of Aedes aegypti.Acta Trop. 1996; 61: 169-179
- What role for insecticides in vector control programs?.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1994; 50: 11-20
- Fever, jaundice, and multiple organ system failure associated with 17D-derived yellow fever vaccination, 1996–2001.MMWR. 2001; 50: 643-645
- Hepatitis and death following vaccination with 17D–204 yellow fever vaccine.Lancet. 2001; 358: 121-122
- Anaphylaxis from yellow fever.J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999; 4: 698-701
- Fever and multisystem organ failure associated with 17D–204 yellow fever vaccination: a report of four cases.Lancet. 2001; 358: 98-104
- Serious adverse events associated with yellow fever 17D vaccine in Brazil: a report of two decades.Lancet. 2001; 358: 91-97
- Safety and efficacy of yellow fever vaccine in children less than one-year-old.West Afr J Med. 1990; 9: 200-203
- Exposure to yellow fever vaccine in early pregnancy.Vaccine. 1999; 17: 283-285
- Travel vaccines and elderly persons: review of vaccines available in the United States.Clin Infect Dis. 2001; 33: 1553-1566
- Advances age risk factor for illness temporally associated with yellow fever vaccination.Emerg Infect Dis. 2001; 7: 945-951
- Yellow fever vaccination of human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: report of 2 cases.Clin Infect Dis. 2000; 31: E7-E8
- Poor antibody response to yellow fever vaccination in children infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1.Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1997; 16: 1177-1179
- Current status of flavivirus vaccines.Ann NY Acad Sci. 2001; 951: 262-271
- Prospects for the control of Bolivian hemorrhagic fever.Emerg Infect Dis. 1995; 1: 97-100
- Rodent control programmes in areas affected by Bolivian haemorrhagic fever.Bull World Health Organ. 1975; 52: 691-696
- Protective efficacy of a live attenuated vaccine against Argentine hemorrhagic fever.J Infect Dis. 1998; 177: 277-283
- Hantavirus infection–Southwestern United States. Interim recommendations for environmental clean-up and risk reduction.MMWR. 1993; 42: 1-13
- Experimental evaluation of rodent exclusion methods to reduce hantavirus transmission to humans in rural housing.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1997; 56: 359-364
- Update: Management of patients with suspected viral hemorrhagic fever—United States.MMWR. 1995; 44: 475-479
- Management of patients with suspected viral hemorrhagic fever.MMWR. 1988; 37: 1-16
- Patients infected with high-hazard viruses: scientific basis for infection control.Arch Virol. 1996; 11: 141-168
Article info
Identification
Copyright
© 2002 Elsevier Science (USA). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
